Epidural compression syndrome encompasses spinal cord compression, cauda equina syndrome, & conus medullaris syndrome.
Causes include:
Measurement of a post-void bladder residual volume tests for the presence of urinary retention with overflow incontinence (a common, though late finding) (sensitivity of 90%, specificity of 95%). Large post-void residual volumes (>100 mL) indicate a denervated bladder with resultant overflow incontinence and suggest significant neurologic compromise. The probability of cauda equina syndrome in patients without urinary retention is approximately 1 in 10,000.
Use this in your daily practice!!
The administration of glucocorticoids can minimize ongoing neurologic damage from compression & edema until definitive therapy can be initiated. The optimal initial dose and duration of therapy is controversial, with a recommended dose range of dexamethasone anywhere from 10 to 100 mg intravenously. Consider traditional dosing (dexamethasone 10 mg) for those with minimal neurologic dysfunction, & reserve the higher dose (dexamethasone 100 mg) for patients with profound or rapidly progressive symptoms, such as paraparesis or paraplegia.
Previous pearls have described tips for smart and safe documentation of typical ED complaints such as chest pain. Properly assessing and documenting orthopedic complaints is likewise very important. No evaluation or chart is complete if it does not include include the following 7 components:
The joint above
The joint below
Motor
Sensory
Vascular
Skin
Compartments
The joint above/below is important in cases of shoulder and hip pain actually being radicular pain (from the neck and back respectively). Also, hip pain from trauma may be due to a femur fracture for example.
For motor and sensory evaluation, test the most distal isolated innervation of a particular nerve (L5 - great toe dorsiflexion for example).
Note distal pulses and check ABIs for injuries with potential subtle vascular findings.
Note intact skin especially in cases where the joint will be covered by a splint.
Note "soft" compartments especially in cases of forearm and lower leg fractures.
Injury was originally described as an occupational hazard in Scottish gamekeepers (from breaking the necks of rabbits against the ground). Today, skiing is now the most common cause and injury is now the second most common orthopedic injury in skiers (MCL injury #1).
Injury to the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) results from a sudden forced abduction (radial deviation) stress at the MCP joint of the thumb, commonly due to a fall against a ski pole or the ground.
http://blog.fitter1.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/b_14_1_2a.jpg
The most frequent site of rupture is the insertion into the proximal phalanx. The UCL may even avulse a small portion of the proximal phalanx at its insertion site.
http://img.medscape.com/pi/emed/ckb/sports_medicine/84611-97564-98460-1652013.jpg
Consider imaging before stress testing (to avoid further displacing a fracture)
http://img.medscape.com/pi/emed/ckb/sports_medicine/84611-97564-98460-1652060.jpg
Stabilize in a thumb spica splint and refer to hand surgery.
Calling this entity a “simple sprain” may result in chronic disability (chronic pain, instability, loss of pinch strength)
Supraspinatus: “Empty can” test. Have the patient abduct the shoulders to 90 degrees in forward flexion with the thumbs pointing downward. The patient attempts to lift the arms against the examiner’s resistance.
http://bjsportmed.com/content/42/8/628/F2.large.jpg
Infraspinatus and teres minor: These muscles are responsible for external rotation of the shoulder. Have the patient flex both elbows to 90 degrees while the examiner provides resistance against external rotation.
http://www.physio-pedia.com/images/4/4b/Infraspinatus_test.jpg
Subscapularis: “Lift-off” test. The patient rests the dorsum of the hand on the lower back (palm out) and then attempts to move the arm and hand off the back. Patients with tears may be unable to complete test due to pain.
http://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/0215/afp20080215p453-f4.jpg
Radiologic evaluation of the elbow (Part 2)
Helpful clues in the evaluation of elbow trauma:
Helpful clues in the evaluation of elbow trauma
Fat pads: The fat pad sign can be seen with any joint effusion (infection, inflammation) but in the setting of trauma, effusions are indicative of fractures about the elbow (even if no fracture line can be identified).
There are two fat pads within the elbow. Normally, on a true lateral radiograph only the anterior fat pad is seen as a small triangular radiolucent shadow anterior to the distal humeral diaphysis. The posterior fat pad is ordinarily not visualized on a lateral radiograph because it is tucked away within the olecranon fossa.
Normal lateral view: http://nypemergency.org/images/ElbowNormal.jpg
With fractures, the joint becomes distended with blood. The anterior fat pad becomes displaced superiorly and outward from the humerus giving the so called "sail sign." Similarly, the posterior fat pad gets displaced out of the olecranon fossa and becomes visible on the lateral radiograph.
Anterior (sail) and posterior fat signs: http://nypemergency.org/images/Elbowsfatpadarrow.jpg
| History and Physical Examination Red Flags | |
| Historical Red Flags | Physcial Red Flags |
| Age under 18 or over 50 Pain lasting more than 6 weeks History of cancer Fever and chills Night sweats, unexplained weight loss Recent bacterial infection Unremitting pain despite rest and analgesics Night pain Intravenous drug users, immunocompromised Major trauma Minor trauma in the elder | Fever Writhing in pain Bowel or bladder incontinence Saddle anesthesia Decreased or absent anal sphincter tone erianal or perineal sensory loss Severe or progressive neurologic defect Major motor weakness |
http://www.gentili.net/signs/images/400/spinescottyparsdefectdrawing.JPG
The Scotty dog’s head (superior articular facet), nose (transverse process), eye (pedicle), neck (pars interarticularis), and body (lamina) should be easily identified on the oblique radiograph.
Sports Hernia/Athletic pubalgia
Hx: Gradually increasing lower abdominal/proximal adductor pain. Usually activity related, resolves with rest. Frequent return despite rest when sports activity resumes.
Most common in athletes who perform cutting/maneuvers in addition to frequent acceleration/deceleration. Think ice hockey and soccer.
Bilateral symptoms not uncommon.
PE: Resisted sit up with palpation of the inferolateral edge of the distal rectus may recreate symptoms. Similarly, resisted hip adduction may elicit symptoms.
If for no other reason than to make the diagnosis harder to make, valsalva induced pain may also occur.
Fluoroscopic guided injections can be helpful to isolate the site of pain generation.
First line therapy is rest, non-narcotic analgesia and physical therapy.
With surgery, >80% return to pre injury level of play.
http://atlantasportsmedicine.com/orthopedic-surgeon/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/groin-injuries.jpg
A recent article in Pediatrics attempted to estimate the association between fluoroquinolone use and tendon injury in an adolescent population.
Fluoroquinolones are thought to negatively impact tendons and cartilage in the load-bearing joints of the lower limbs through collagen degradation, necrosis, and disruption of the extracellular matrix.
Population: 4.4 million adolescents aged 12–18 years with filled outpatient fluoroquinolone prescription vs. an oral broad-spectrum antibiotic for comparison.
Fluoroquinolones included ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and gatifloxacin
Comparator antibiotics included amoxicillin-clavulanate, azithromycin, cefalexin, cefixime, cefdinir, nitrofurantoin, and bactrim.
Outcomes: Primary outcome was 90-day tendon rupture (Achilles, patellar, quadricep, patellar, tibial) identified by diagnosis and procedure codes. Secondary outcome was tendinitis.
Results: The weighted 90-day tendon rupture risk was 13.6 per 100 000 fluoroquinolone-treated adolescents and 11.6 per 100 000 comparator-treated adolescents.
Fluoroquinolone-associated excess risk: 1.9 per 100 000 adolescents; the corresponding number needed to treat to harm was 52 632.
The weighted 90-day tendinitis risk was 200.8 per 100 000 fluoroquinolone-treated adolescents and 178.1 per 100 000 comparator-treated adolescents
Fluoroquinolone-associated excess risk excess risk: 22.7 per 100 000 adolescents; the corresponding number needed to treat to harm was 4405.
Conclusion:
The excess risk of tendon rupture associated with fluoroquinolone treatment was extremely small, and these events were rare. On average, 50,000 adolescents would need to be treated with a fluoroquinolone for 1 additional tendon rupture to occur
The excess risk of tendinitis associated with fluoroquinolone treatment though larger was also small.
Besides tendon rupture, other more common potential adverse drug effects may be more important to consider for treatment decision-making, in adolescents without other risk factors for tendon injury.
