Posterolateral Corner Injuries
The posterolateral corner “PLC” of the knee is becoming increasingly recognized as an extremely important structure to maintain the stability of the knee joint.
PLC injuries occur with hyperextension, varus load and tibial external rotation. So the most common mechanism is a posterolaterally directed blow to the anteromedial tibia when the knee is hyperextended. PLC injuries are commonly associated with injury to other ligaments (ACL, PCL, LCL) and occur in isolation in <5% of cases. If suspected make sure to check for other ligamentous injuries.
Since this injury can be missed and is associated with significant disability it is important to test for it. This YouTube video, http://youtu.be/bnXaTdvZZ6o, demonstrates several examination techniques that can identify the injury.
Evaluation of circulatory status is the most important aspect of post reduction care.
Look for hard findings such as cool/cold lower extremity, diminished or absent pulses, pale or dusky skin, paralysis, etc.
However, the absence of these findings should not lull the clinician into a false sense of security. The degree of initial joint deformity, presence of full bounding pulses and warm skin over the dorsum of the foot can all be present in the setting of vascular injury.
The next step will be to perform an ABI (ankle-brachial index).
In one small study, no patient with an ABI greater than or equal to 0.9 had a vascular injury.
Patients with a reassuring physical exam and ABIs should be admitted for vascular checks without further imaging.
Patients with a reassuring physical examination but with an abnormal ABI should have an imaging study obtained (arteriogram/CT angiogram).
Patients with hard findings of a vascular injury should have an emergent vascular surgery consultation.
Sugar Tong Splint
The sugar tong splint is ideal for splinting fractures of the radius, ulna, or wrist. It prevents flexion and extension at the wrist, limits flexion and extension at the elbow, and prevents supination and pronation. A posterior long arm splint does not prevent supinaton and pronation, therefore, it is of limited use for radius and ulna fractures.
The traditional sugar tong can be difficult to put on a patient without an assistant as it is often hard to hold the splint in position as you begin to ace wrap it. A variation on the sugar tong, the reverse sugar tong, prevents this frustration. The splinting material is cut so that a small piece suspends the splint from the web space between the thumb and index finger. The open ends at the elbow are also easily folded under each other, preventing any bulky splint material from extending out.
The reverse sugar tong is on the left, the original sugar tong on the right.
Check out this video showing how to place a reverse sugar tong splint.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-RHdttOMf0
Stability from 4 major ligaments (ACL, PCL, MCL and LCL)
Knee dislocation causes injury to multiple ligaments (usually 3 of the above).
Many of these dislocation spontaneously reduce prior to medical evaluation. Therefore, consider knee dislocation in a patient with multi ligament injury, significant hemarthrosis and bruising.
Vascular injury in up to 40% (popliteal artery)
Nerve injury in up to 23% (peroneal nerve) ((ankle dorsiflexion and sensation to the first web space of the foot))
After reduction, immobilize knee in 15-20 degrees flexion.
The degree of initial deformity, presence of strong pulses, or warm skin cannot be used to rule out popliteal injury.
Acute brachial plexus neuritis is an uncommon disorder that is easily confused with cervical radiculopathy.
Patients present with a characteristic pattern of acute onset of burning pain. Pain subsides in days to weeks and is then followed by profound weakness and muscle wasting changes affecting the shoulder and upper extremity. Weakness is best identified in the deltoid, biceps and rotator cuff muscles. Strength gradually recovers over 3-4 months.
DDX: The constellation of pain, weakness and sensory loss associated with cervical radiculopathy tend to occur simultaneously. Also cervical radiculopathy tends to involve only a single root.
ED treatment is with analgesics and physical therapy and PCP referral for outpatient MRI/EMG. Consider a sling in those with severe shoulder weakness.
Refractory Osteomyelitis is defined as a chronic osteomyelitis that persists or recurs after appropriate interventions have been performed or where acute osteomyelitis has not responded to surgery and antibiotics.
Case series, animal data and non-randomized prospective trials suggest that the addition of Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy to routine surgical and antibiotic management of previously refractory osteomyelitis is safe and improves the rate of infection resolution.
In patients with osteomyelitis involving spine, skull, sternum, HBOT is recommended prior to surgical intervention.
Typically patients require 20-40 daily dives for sustained therapeutic benefit.
How does HBOT work in osteomyelitis?
1. Restoration of normal to elevated O2 level in infected bone.
2. Leukocyte mediated killing of aerobic bacteria is restored when low O2 tension intrinsic to osteomyolitic bone is restored to physiologic or supra-physiologic levels.
3. HBOT is noted to exert direct suppressive effects on anaerobic infections.
4. HBOT augment the transport of certain abx (aminoglycosides and cephalosporins) across bacterial cell wall.
5. Enhance osteogenesis
6. Enhance angiogenesis
thank you to Dr. Sethuraman for this pearl
Emergency physicians are often called upon to provide event coverage for marathons.
Prolonged endurance racing is safe for the majority of participants.
Hyponatremia (8.2% - 13.5%) - finishing times of greater than 4 hours is an independent risk factor
Hypokalemia – uncommon
Renal function – BUN > 30 or Cr > 1.4 mg/dL (23.6%). There is no data that this is of any clinical significance.
Cardiac Troponin - (11%) had significant increases (troponin T > or = 0.075 ng/mL or troponin I > or = 0.5 ng/mL). Elevations were more commonly seen with weight loss and increased Cr levels and may be associated with running inexperience (< 5 previous marathons) and young age (< 30 years) though interestingly not with race duration or traditional cardiac risk factors.
Findings are similar for men and women
Pes Anserine Bursitis is an inflammatory condition of the medial knee
Occurs at the bursa of the pes anserinus which overlies the attachment of the 1) Sartorius 2) gracilis and 3) semitendinosis tendons
Note the location is 2-3 inches below the knee joint on the medial side
http://kneespecialistsurgeon.com/images/uploaded/Pes%20anserinus%20bursitis%20image.jpg
http://eso-cdn.bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/images/bp/en-gb/575-27_default.jpg
Patients complain of pain (especially with stair climbing)
PE: Tenderness to palpation of the bursa with mild swelling
DDx: MCL tear, medial meniscus injury, medial (knee) compartment arthritis
Treatment: Cessation/modification of offending activities, Icing and ice massage, NSAIDs, hamstring stretching and physical therapy. Failure of the above should prompt referral for bursal steroid injection.
Kocher Criteria for Septic Arthritis in Children:
Septic arthritis should be suspected in children that have a painful joint especially if they do not want to weight bear. Orthopedics uses the Kocher Criteria to determine the probability of whether the joint is infected.
Four elements make up the criteria:
If only one sign is present there is a 3% chance the child has a septic joint.
Kienbock’s disease is a rare entity involving collapse of the lunate due to avascular necrosis and vascular insufficiency.
Occurs most commonly in young adults aged 15 to 40 years.
Cause is unknown but believed to be due to remote trauma or repetitive microtrauma in at risk individuals.
Patients complain of wrist pain, stiffness and swelling
On exam, limited range of motion, decreased grip strength and passive dorsiflexion of the 3rd digit produces pain.
Dx: plain film in the ED and with MRI as an outpatient.
Tx: Wrist immobilization with splint and refer to orthopedics. Ultimate treatment is individualized and there is no clear consensus.
Lunate sclerosis seen on plain film
http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/figures/A00017F02.jpg
AVN of the lunate seen on MRI
http://www.assh.org/Public/HandConditions/PublishingImages/KeinbocksMRI_figure3.JPG
Transient brachial plexopathies aka Burners and Stingers
Brachial plexus injuries are the most common peripheral nerve injuries seen in athletes.
49-65% of all college football players have experienced at least one burner with a 87% recurrence rate.
Injuries most commonly occur at C5-C6 but may involve any root level.
3 Mechanisms: Commonly due to
1) Traction caused by lateral flexion of the neck away from the involved side
2) Compression of the upper plexus between shoulder pads and scapula
3) Nerve compression caused by neck hyperextension and ipsilateral rotation.
CC: Burning or numbness in the neck, shoulder and/or arm
Symptoms are UNILATERAL and tend to usually last seconds to minutes
Symptoms are reproduced by the Spurling maneuver.
Function gradually returns from the proximal muscle groups to the distal muscle groups.
Because most burners are self-limited, the most important goal is to rule out an unstable cervical injury.
Iliopsoas tendonitis and Iliopsoas Syndrome
Meralgia Paresthetica - caused by entrapment of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN)
The LFCN is responsible for sensation of the anteriorlateral thigh.
http://www.chiropractic-help.com/images/Meralgia-Paresthetica.jpg
NOTE* It has no motor component!
Associated with pregnancy, wearing tight pants, belts, girdles, and in diabetic and obese patients.
Symptoms include numbness, paresthesias and pain (not weakness). Worse w walking, standing. Better w sitting.
Diagnosis is clinical but may be confirmed with nerve conduction studies
Treatment includes, NSAIDs, injection and surgery for refractory cases.
Tendon Lacerations:
A reasonable approach to all tendon lacerations is to close the wound and splint in the hand in the position of function until the patient can be seen by a hand surgeon in the next 1-3 days. These injuries do not require immediate surgical repair.
Tendon Lacerations:
Hand lacerations need to be carefully explored in order to determine whether there is an associated tendon laceration. These can be be difficult to find unless a systematic approach is followed:
Future pearls will cover techniques on how to repair tendon lacerations. Stay tuned.
Gout treatment considerations
Treatment is directed to relieve pain and inflammation
NSAIDs, steroids and narcotics are the mainstays of treatment. All 3 should be used in combination.
Aspirin should be avoided as it may increase uric acid levels
Note: not in prevention doses (81mg) in treatment doses (325-650mg q4h)
NSAIDs and steroids take time to be effective. Provide appropriate analgesia with oral narcotic medication for short term relief
Don't forget the benefit of splinting a "hot" joint (the ankle or wrist for example)
NSAIDs: Use may be limited in the elderly and in those on coumadin or with peptic ulcer disease. 5-7 days of treatment is usually sufficient. Indomethacin is most commonly used (50 mg TID, which may be tapered to 25 mg TID after 3 days)
Steroids: Likely more effective than NSAIDs. Oral prednisolone is more effective than naproxen (1). Use prednisone 30-50 mg for 3-5 days without tapering (as we use for asthma). May be useful to supplement with NSAIDs on the tail end to prevent a rebound flare. If tapping the joint consider intraarticular steroids. If there is concern for medical noncompliance with oral steroids consider IM steroids (triamcinolone 60mg or methylprednisolone).
Gout Part 2
Knee dislocations are uncommon, and prosthetic knee dislocations even rarer. Some general facts about prosthetic knee dislocations are:
GOUT part 1
Gout is an inflammatory arthritis that classically affects the first metatarsal phalangeal joint
Gout prefers cool ambient temperature hence gouty tophi prefer the great toe (one of the coldest parts of the body) and avoids "warmer" joints such as the hip and shoulder.
Remember that gout can affect other joints as well (elbow, wrist, knee and ankle) and can cause painful bursitis and tendonitis
Multiple joints can be involved simultaneously (leading to confusing with RA and OA)
The involved joint will often be red, hot, swollen and very painful leading to easy confusion with cellulitis and or a septic arthritis
Diagnose gout by demonstrating monosodium urate crystals in the synovial fluid.
**Remember previous pearl by Dr. Bond regarding the coexistence of gout with septic joint**
Serum uric acid levels are commonly elevated but can be normal or even low
Use caution with this test because asymptomatic hyperuricemia is much more common than gout
Talar Neck Fractures
Have a high rate of avascular necrosis (AVN), nonunion, and arthritis. Almost all require ORIF
