UMEM Educational Pearls - Pediatrics

The gold standard for confirming ETT position is a chest xray, but this can often be delayed while the patient is stabilized. Many physicians will estimate ETT insertion depth to be 3x the ETT size, but this is based on selection of the correct tube.  There are several other published formulas, including the PALS guidelines [age in years/2 + 12] which applies to children older than one year.  In 1982, there was an article published that cited the formulas of [Height (cm) x 0.1 +5] or [Weight(kg)/5 + 12].

This was a retrospective study where the ideal position of cuffed ETT (from the front teeth) was determined by looking at post intubation xrays of 167 patients between 28 days and 18 years.  The individual optimal ETT insertion depth was plotted against age, weight and height for all children.  This study showed that there is not a fully linear relationship between age, height or weight which is a flaw of all of these formulas.  Calculations using the patients’ weight performed the worst.  Age based and height formulas performed the best.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pearl on Tessalon Perles: One pill can kill

Posted: 2/29/2024 by To-Lam Nguyen, MD (Emailed: 3/1/2024) (Updated: 3/1/2024)
Click here to contact To-Lam Nguyen, MD

You've heard of one kill pills such as calcium channel blockers, beta blockers, sulfonylureas, anti-malarials, but less commonly known is benzonatate, or tessalon perles.

Tessalon perles are not recommended for children under the age of 10. 1-2 capsules of benzonatate in children <2 years old have been reported to cause serious side effects including restlessness, tremors, convulsions, coma and even cardiac arrest rapidly after ingestion (within 15-20 minutes and death within a couple of hours). It is attractive to young children as it somewhat resembles a jelly bean. 

Pearls on Tessalon Perles:

  • Always ask your patients about children in their household and strongly consider alternative to tessalon perles if children <10 years in home
  • If you do decide to prescribe, prescribe only the amount of tessalon perles that a patient needs for cough relief
  • Inform your patients about this high risk of accidental ingestion by children
  • Keep tessalon perles in child-resistant container and keep it out of reach of children AT ALL TIMES
  • Call the poison center (800-222-1222) immediately if accidental ingestion by child

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: What is BACM?

Keywords: myositis, acute kidney injury, problems walking, calf pain (PubMed Search)

Posted: 2/14/2024 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Emailed: 2/16/2024) (Updated: 2/16/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

BACM stands for benign acute childhood myositis which is typically a benign, viral induced self limiting illness.  This was a retrospective study looking at 65 patients in Italy to further characterize the characteristics of the disease.

In this study, the median patient age was 6 years with a male predominance.  The incidence of BACM peaked in winter with a second peak in the fall.  Patients presented with prodromal symptoms including fever, cough, coryza, sore throat and vomiting.  The exam showed difficulty walking and myalgias with reproducible calf tenderness and preserved reflexes.  Influenza B and A, COVID and other viral pathogens have been detected in these patients.

Lab work may show an elevated creatinine kinase, AST and potassium.  WBC and CRP may also be elevated.  The median CK value was 943 U/L and on average normalized within one week.  Other studies have shown median CK values in the 3300s. Treatment includes hydration to promote CK clearance and prevent complications including acute kidney injury related to rhabdomyolysis.  Recurrent myositis or CK values > 5000 U/L should have screening tests for muscular dystrophy and metabolic disorders.

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It is an often asked question: should I consider the corrected or the chronologic age when determining the need for fever evaluation in a pediatric patient? The 2021 AAP guidelines for the well appearing febrile neonate are widely accepted and apply to neonates under 60 days. These highly practical guidelines are, unfortunately, not applicable to pre-term neonates. The question often becomes what age to use for a pre-term neonate- the age they actually are, or the age they would be if they had completed a full term gestation. 

Hadhud et al attempted to clarify the age utilized in a retrospective review. This looked at febrile 448 pre-term neonates evaluated for fevers. It found that those patients with both a corrected and chronologic age over 3 months had a 2.6% rate of serious bacterial infections or SBI (UTI, bacteremia or meningitis), those with a corrected age under 3 months but a chronologic age over 3 months had a 16.7% rate of SBIs, and those with both a corrected and chronologic age of under 3 months had a 33.3% rate of SBI. 

Overall, these rates of infection are higher than the typically reported in febrile neonates, supporting that pre-term neonates have a much higher risk of infections overall. Ultimately, pre-term neonates should be carefully assessed and a more thorough evaluation is typically warranted in this patient population even if they have reached the generally accepted 60 day marker by chronologic age- use the corrected age.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric bounce backs

Keywords: Bouncebacks, high risk discharges, gastroenteritis, death (PubMed Search)

Posted: 1/19/2024 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Revisits back to the ED within 3 days of the initial visit represent a standard quality measure.  A critical ED revisit was defined as an ICU admission or death within 3 days of ED discharge.  This study looked at 16.3 million children who were discharged from various EDs over a 4 year period and found that 0.1% (18,704 patients) had a critical revisit and 0.00001% (180 patients) died.  

The most common diagnosis at the initial visit of those patients coming back with a critical revisit included: Upper respiratory infections, gastroenteritis/nausea/vomiting and asthma.

The most common critical revisit diagnosis were: asthma, pneumonia, cellulitis, bronchiolitis, upper respiratory infections, respiratory failure, seizure, gastroenteritis/nausea/vomiting, appendectomy and sickle cell crisis. Among the patients who died, 48.9% were younger than 4 years. Patients with complex medical problems and patients seen at a high volume center were more likely to have a critical ED visit.

Bottom line: These ED revisits may not have been related to missed diagnosis (with the exception of appendicitis), but rather due to the natural progression of certain disease processes.  Patients with these diagnoses may benefit from careful reassessment, targeted patient education, more specific return precautions and closer outpatient follow up.

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Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the leading cause of fever without a source in infants younger than 3 months.  This data was collected from patients who presented to the emergency department with fever without a source over a 16 year period.  Out of 2850 patients, 20.8% were diagnosed with a UTI, the majority of which grew E coli.  Of those patients who were diagnosed with UTI, these patients were more likely to have a history of renal/GU problems, have a fever of at least 39C (38% vs 29%) or poor feeding (13% vs 8.7%).  However, 48% had none of these risk factors.  Also 6.1% of patients with a febrile UTI had another invasive bacterial infection.  These patients were more likely to be < 1 month, be "irritable" per parents and have an elevated procalcitonin and CRP.  

Bottom line:  A lack of risk factors can not exclude a UTI in febrile infants < 3 months.  A diagnosis of UTI also does not definitively exclude an additional invasive bacterial infection in a subset of these children.

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Since Christmas is coming up, let's talk about Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency) and Hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency, also known as Christmas disease)

Deficiencies in Factors VIII and IX are the most common severe inherited bleeding disorders.

Pathophysiology: 

  • Factors VIII and IX are required for activation of factor X.
  • In patients with Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency) or Hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency, also known as Christmas disease), after an injury, clot formation is delayed. 
  • Inadequate thrombin generation leads to failure to form a tightly crosslinked fibrin clot to support platelet plug, which leads to easy bleeding.
  • Clot that is formed may be friable and rebleeding occurs during physiologic lysis of clots or with minimal new trauma

Clinical Manifestations:

  • 2% of neonates with hemophilia have intracranial hemorrhages
  • 30% of male infants with hemophilia bleed with circumcision
  • Continued bleeding from umbilical stump in neonate
  • In absence of positive family history (hemophilia has high rate of spontaneous mutation), hemophilia may go undiagnosed in a newborn
  • Easy bruising, intramuscular hematomas, and hemarthroses (hallmark for hemophilic bleeding) begin when child begins to cruise
  • Bleeding from minor traumatic lacerations of the mouth (e.g. torn frenulum) can persist for hours or days
  • Iliopsoas hemorrhage: patient may lose large volumes of bleed into the muscle, leading to hypovolemic shock, with only a vague complaint of area of referred pain in the groin. Hip is held in a flexed, internally rotated position, due to irritation of the iliopsoas.
    • Confirmed on CT or US
    • Clinically unable to extend hip
  • Hemarthrosis rare in patients with acquired hemophilia

Lab findings and diagnosis

  • Reduced levels of factor VIII or factor IX will cause higher PTT 
  • PTT is usually 2-3x upper limit of normal in patients with severe hemophilia.
  • Platelet count, bleeding time, prothrombin time, and thrombin time are all normal
  • If PTT is not corrected after administration of factor VIII or IX, an inhibitor may be present.
    • 25-35% of patients with hemophilia who received infusions of factor VIII or factor IX, a factor specific antibody may develop (inhibitor)

Genetics

  • Hemophilia occurs in 1:5000 males, with 85% having factor VIII deficiency and 10-15% having factor IX deficiency
  • No apparent racial predilection, appearing in all ethnic groups

 

Classification

  • Severe hemophilia: <1% activity of specific clotting factor and bleeding is often spontaneous
  • Moderate hemophilia: 1-5% activity and require mild

trauma to induce bleeding

  • Mild hemophilia: >5% activity and can go many years before diagnosis and usually require significant trauma to induce bleeding.

Treatment

  • Ask patient or family if they brought their dosing information with them or their factor replacement with them. In many cases, they have it!
  • For life-threatening or major hemorrhages, dose should aim to achieve levels of 100% activity
    • Hemophilia A: 50U/kg recombinant Factor VIII (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 2%)
    • Hemophilia B: 100U/kg recombinant Factor IX (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 1%)
    • Aim for 50% correction in moderate bleeds and 100% correction in severe bleeds
    • If you don’t have factor-specific products:
      • Hemophilia A
        • can give 1U cryoprecipitate (~80U of factor VIII) or try PCC (as it contains factors II, VII, IX, and X)
        • activated PCC (FEIBA) 75-100U/kg
      • Hemophilia B
        • FFP NO LONGER RECOMMENDED (volume of FFP required has high risk of volume overload)
        • Cryoprecipitate does NOT contain factor IX, so will not work.
  • For acute bleeding in patients with mild hemophilia A:
    • Can give DDAVP: increases factor VIII by 3-5x by encouraging release of endogenous factor VIII. Recommended dose: 0.3mcg/kg/dose IV
  • For mild bleeding:
    • TXA (clot stabilizer)
    • Desmopressin
    • Aminocaproic acid
  • If patient has inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A: 
      • Activated PCC (75-100U/kg) (do NOT give if on patient is on emicizumab (Hemlibra) due to risk of thrombosis)
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg
    • Hemophilia B:
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg

 

Summary:

  • Aim for 50% correction in moderate bleeds and 100% correction in severe bleeds
  • Hemophilia A: 50U/kg recombinant Factor VIII (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 2%)
  • Hemophilia B: 100U/kg recombinant Factor IX (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 1%)
  • Treatment if patient has no inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A: 
      • Severe bleed: Give full dose factor XIII (50U/kg), even if the patient is on prophylaxis
      • Mild bleeds: factor XIII replacement (25U/kg), TXA, DDAVP, aminocaproic acid
    • Hemophilia B: 
      • Severe bleed: Give full dose factor IX (100U/kg), even if the patient is on prophylaxis
      • Mild bleeds: factor IV replacement (50U/kg), TXA, aminocaproic acid
  • Treatment if patient has inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A: 
      • Activated PCC (75-100U/kg) (do NOT give if on patient is on emicizumab (Hemlibra) due to risk of thrombosis)
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg
    •  Hemophilia B:
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg

 

Show References



Since Christmas is coming up, let's talk about Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency) and Hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency, also known as Christmas disease)

Deficiencies in Factors VIII and IX are the most common severe inherited bleeding disorders.

Pathophysiology:

  • Factors VIII and IX are required for activation of factor X.
  • In patients with Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency) or Hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency, also known as Christmas disease), after an injury, clot formation is delayed.
  • Inadequate thrombin generation leads to failure to form a tightly crosslinked fibrin clot to support platelet plug, which leads to easy bleeding.
  • Clot that is formed may be friable and rebleeding occurs during physiologic lysis of clots or with minimal new trauma

Clinical Manifestations:

  • 2% of neonates with hemophilia have intracranial hemorrhages
  • 30% of male infants with hemophilia bleed with circumcision
  • Continued bleeding from umbilical stump in neonate
  • In absence of positive family history (hemophilia has high rate of spontaneous mutation), hemophilia may go undiagnosed in a newborn
  • Easy bruising, intramuscular hematomas, and hemarthroses (hallmark for hemophilic bleeding) begin when child begins to cruise
  • Bleeding from minor traumatic lacerations of the mouth (e.g. torn frenulum) can persist for hours or days
  • Iliopsoas hemorrhage: patient may lose large volumes of bleed into the muscle, leading to hypovolemic shock, with only a vague complaint of area of referred pain in the groin. Hip is held in a flexed, internally rotated position, due to irritation of the iliopsoas.
    • Confirmed on CT or US
    • Clinically unable to extend hip
  • Hemarthrosis rare in patients with acquired hemophilia

Lab findings and diagnosis

  • Reduced levels of factor VIII or factor IX will cause higher PTT
  • PTT is usually 2-3x upper limit of normal in patients with severe hemophilia.
  • Platelet count, bleeding time, prothrombin time, and thrombin time are all normal
  • If PTT is not corrected after administration of factor VIII or IX, an inhibitor may be present.
    • 25-35% of patients with hemophilia who received infusions of factor VIII or factor IX, a factor specific antibody may develop (inhibitor)

Genetics

  • Hemophilia occurs in 1:5000 males, with 85% having factor VIII deficiency and 10-15% having factor IX deficiency
  • No apparent racial predilection, appearing in all ethnic groups

 

Classification

  • Severe hemophilia: <1% activity of specific clotting factor and bleeding is often spontaneous
  • Moderate hemophilia: 1-5% activity and require mild

trauma to induce bleeding

  • Mild hemophilia: >5% activity and can go many years before diagnosis and usually require significant trauma to induce bleeding.

Treatment

  • Ask patient or family if they brought their dosing information with them or their factor replacement with them. In many cases, they have it!
  • For life-threatening or major hemorrhages, dose should aim to achieve levels of 100% activity
    • Hemophilia A: 50U/kg recombinant Factor VIII (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 2%)
    • Hemophilia B: 100U/kg recombinant Factor IX (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 1%)
    • Aim for 50% correction in moderate bleeds and 100% correction in severe bleeds
    • If you don’t have factor-specific products:
      • Hemophilia A
        • can give 1U cryoprecipitate (~80U of factor VIII) or try PCC (as it contains factors II, VII, IX, and X)
        • activated PCC (FEIBA) 75-100U/kg
      • Hemophilia B
        • FFP NO LONGER RECOMMENDED (volume of FFP required has high risk of volume overload)
        • Cryoprecipitate does NOT contain factor IX, so will not work.
  • For acute bleeding in patients with mild hemophilia A:
    • Can give DDAVP: increases factor VIII by 3-5x by encouraging release of endogenous factor VIII. Recommended dose: 0.3mcg/kg/dose IV
  • For mild bleeding:
    • TXA (clot stabilizer)
    • Desmopressin
    • Aminocaproic acid
  • If patient has inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A:
      • Activated PCC (75-100U/kg) (do NOT give if on patient is on emicizumab (Hemlibra) due to risk of thrombosis)
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg
    • Hemophilia B:
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg

 

Summary:

  • Aim for 50% correction in moderate bleeds and 100% correction in severe bleeds
  • Hemophilia A: 50U/kg recombinant Factor VIII (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 2%)
  • Hemophilia B: 100U/kg recombinant Factor IX (each U/kg of factor VIII in hemophilia A increases factor by 1%)
  • Treatment if patient has no inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A:
      • Severe bleed: Give full dose factor XIII (50U/kg), even if the patient is on prophylaxis
      • Mild bleeds: factor XIII replacement (25U/kg), TXA, DDAVP, aminocaproic acid
    • Hemophilia B:
      • Severe bleed: Give full dose factor IX (100U/kg), even if the patient is on prophylaxis
      • Mild bleeds: factor IV replacement (50U/kg), TXA, aminocaproic acid
  • Treatment if patient has inhibitors:
    • Hemophilia A:
      • Activated PCC (75-100U/kg) (do NOT give if on patient is on emicizumab (Hemlibra) due to risk of thrombosis)
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg
    •  Hemophilia B:
      • Recombinant factor VII 90mcg/kg

 

 

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric Lung Ultrasound

Keywords: POCUS, Pediatrics, Lung Ultrasound, Bronchiolitis (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/20/2023 by Alexis Salerno, MD
Click here to contact Alexis Salerno, MD

Acute bronchiolitis (AB) is a common cause of respiratory tract infections in infants. A recent study looked at the application of Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasound (LUS) in infants <12 months who presented with symptoms of AB. 

They scored infant lungs using a cumulative 12-zone system. With the below scale: 

0 - A lines with <3 B lines per lung segment. 

1 - ≥3 B lines per lung segment, but not consolidated. 

2 - consolidated B lines, but no subpleural consolidation. 

3 - subpleural consolidation with any findings scoring 1 or 2. 

 

They found that infants with higher LUS scores had increased rates of hospitalization and length of stay.  

Here are some tips for ultrasounding a pediatric patient: 

 

  • Attempt to warm the gel
  • Have the parent/relative hold the patient while scanning
  • For those old enough, allow the child to investigate the ultrasound probe prior to placing the probe on the child.
  • Destract the child while performing scanning

 

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Does the timing of patient transfer impact mortality in the pediatric trauma patient?

Keywords: pediatric trauma, transport, time to destination (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/17/2023 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Pediatric patients treated at pediatric specific trauma centers have improved mortality.  However, it is estimated that only 57% of patients live within 30 miles of a pediatric trauma center.  This means that many children will need to be stabilized at an adult trauma center or community hospital prior to transfer.  This study showed that > 25% of injured children were transferred to a pediatric trauma center following stabilization at another hospital.
 
The American College of Surgeons has previously recommended that the optimal interfacility transfer time for trauma patients is 60 minutes.
 
Data for this study was extracted from a database fed by over 800 trauma hospitals.  Every minute increase in the interfacility transfer time is associated with a 2% increase in risk adjusted odds of mortality among severely injured pediatric trauma patients.
 
Bottom line: When faced with a moderate to severely injured pediatric trauma patient, the availability and time to transport should be taken into account. If the time is > 60 minutes, then mode of transport and destination (if others are available), should be considered.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Neonate Resus Review

Keywords: Neonate, Newborn, resuscitation, NRP (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/3/2023 by Kelsey Johnson, DO (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Kelsey Johnson, DO

Term? Tone? Tantrum?

Immediately after delivery, your initial neonatal assessment should evaluate for:

-       Appearance of full or late pre-term gestation (>34 weeks)

-       Appropriate tone (flexed extremities, not floppy)

-       Good cry and respiratory effort

 

Newborns meeting this criteria should not require resuscitation. They can be placed skin to skin on mother and allowed to breastfeed. Delayed cord clamping for 60 seconds is recommended, as data shows improved neurodevelopmental outcomes and iron stores in first year of life.

 

Neonates not meeting these criteria should be brought to the warmer for resuscitation, with the focus being on:

-       Warm - via radiant warmer. Maintain temps 36.5 C – 37.5 C

-       Dry - Neonates have thin skin and lose heat readily from evaporative loses

-       Stim - tactile stimulation on the head, midline of the back and extremities to provoke a cry and encourage respiratory effort

 

Avoid routinely bulb-suctioning unless there is significant obstructing mucous, as this can increase vagal tone and result in bradycardia. If bulb suctioning is used, first suction the mouth before the nose.

 

Majority of resuscitations do not require additional support, however if heart rate is <100 or there is poor respiratory effort, the physician should initiate PPV.

 

PPV settings:   PIP 20              PEEP 5              FiO2 21%         Rate of 60 breaths per minute

 

Improvement in the neonate’s HR is the primary indicator of effective PPV!

If HR poorly responding (remains <100), ensure appropriate mask size, reposition, suction, and increase PIP (max 35) and FiO2.

 

If HR drops below 60, intubate with uncuffed ETT

-       Prioritize adequate ventilation as this is the highest priority in neonatal resuscitation

-       Initiate compressions at rate of 120/min.

-       Epi dosing is 0.01-0.03 mg/kg q3-5 min

-       ETT size estimation by gestational age:

        25 weeks = 2.5, 30 weeks = 3.0, 35 weeks = 3.5, 40 weeks = 4.0



Category: Pediatrics

Title: Should an ED thoracotomy be performed in pediatrics?

Keywords: trauma arrest, ROSC, blunt, penetrating (PubMed Search)

Posted: 10/20/2023 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

12 pediatric and adult surgeons with pediatric trauma expertise reviewed the literature to form a consensus statement on the indications for ED thoracotomy (EDT) on patients younger than 19 years.  Eleven studies were included for a total of 319 children who underwent EDT.  142 patients had penetrating trauma while 177 sustained blunt trauma.  Survival in the penetrating group was 13.4% and 2.3% in the blunt group.  Many of these patients were 15 and older.  Based on the review of the literature, the group made recommendations:
 
1) In pediatric patients with signs of life (SOL) who present pulseless in the setting of penetrating trauma, EDT was conditionally recommended.
2) In pediatric patients without SOL who present pulseless in the setting of penetrating thoracic trauma EDT was conditionally NOT recommended.  
3)  In pediatric patients with SOL who present pulseless in the setting of penetrating abdominopelvic trauma EDT was conditionally recommended.  
4) In pediatric patients without SOL who present pulseless in the setting of penetrating abdominopelvic trauma EDT was conditionally NOT recommended.  
5) In pediatric patients with SOL who present pulseless in the setting of blunt trauma EDT was conditionally recommended AFTER emergency adjuncts which include ultrasound and thoracostomies.  
6)  In pediatric patients without SOL who present pulseless in the setting of blunt trauma EDT was NOT recommended.  
 
SOL included cardiac electrical activity, respiratory effort, pupillary response, pulses, blood pressure, or extremity movement.
 
Bottom line:  If the pediatric trauma patient presents pulseless, but with SOL, EDT can be considered.  However, evidence is still very limited, especially in children < 15 and these recommendations are conditional.

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- Magnets move through the GI tract at different rates and become lodged in adjacent loops of intestine. Adjacent bowel segments can stick together when the magnets attract each other through the bowel walls which can cause obstruction, perforation, fistula formation, and necrotic bowel.

- Obtain xray to identify ingested metallic object(s)

- Any object lodged in the esophagus should be emergently removed by a pediatric gastroenterologist.

- Once an object is past the stomach and beyond the reach of endoscopy, affected patients need to be watched carefully for signs of obstruction or peritonitis, either occurrence requiring the prompt consultation of a pediatric surgeon.

- Enhancement of magnet movement through the GI  tract may be aided by a laxative such as polyethylene glycol, but there is no clear data that this approach speeds the passage of the magnet. There is no clear guidance on how frequently to obtain abdominal radiographs to determine movement or passage of ingested magnets.

- More frequently lodge in esophagus due to seize and cause electric urn on contact

- Complications include perforation or fistula formation

- Honey or liquid ulcer medication carafate can slow extent of esophageal injury

- Current recommendations from National Button Battery Hotline: caregiver to give 2 teaspoons of honey every 10 minutes while en route to hospital

- Causes caustic contact to vocal cords, which leads to acute laryngospasm 

- Airway compromise, if to occur, occurs rapidly. If after brief obs period, it does not appear, it is very unlikely to be a late occurance. 

- Corrosive on GI tract. pH of detergents range from 7-9. 

- Any child with difficulty swallowing, drooling, stridor, and recurrent vomiting should have GI consulted for endoscopy

Tiki Torch Oil

- Tiki torch oil looks like apple juice (the container looks similar too)

- Lamp oil ingestion (hydrocarbons) can cause excessive drowsiness, lung injury, difficulty breathing

- Preventing accidental tiki torch oil ingestion: NEVER use torch fuels near area where food or drinks are served, keep out of reach and out of sight of young children, and only buy bottle of torch fuels with child-resistant cap and make sure to replace cap securely after every single use

Hydrogen Peroxide

- 35% hydrogen peroxide has become more popular as food-grade or nutraceutical product (food additive purportedly used for medicinal purposes)

- When hydrogen peroxide reacts with HCl in the stomach, it liberates large volumes of oxygen causing immediate frothy emesis and systemic absorption of oxygen. Gastric oxygen, once absorbed, passes through the portal vein to liver causing gas embolisms in liver

- Preferred evaluation of kids with known ingestion and acute vomiting should image by noncontrast limited upper abdominal CT (to reduce radiation exposure) to assess bubble burden. 

- There is no consensus on what is considered a significant air embolism burden that would require hyperbaric treatment

A single tablet of buprenorphine, or a single dissolvable gel strip of its formulation as Suboxone has been lethal to children.

Prescribing intranasal naloxone spray to the family of patients on buprenorphine (and methadone as well) is potentially lifesaving to the patient, should they take too much, but also for children in their homes who may accidentally eat a single tablet or chew on what appears to be a “gummy” product, a dissolvable formulation of Suboxone.

Pediatricians doing anticipatory safety guidance to parents at the 9-month-old to 1-year-old health supervision visit should ask about opiates and medication-assisted therapy present in the home or used by caregivers (especially grandparents) and should offer to write a prescription for naloxone nasal spray 

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Kids eat everything (except perhaps carefully prepared and balanced meals). While button battery ingestions are feared, there is more to worry about. Magnet ingestions – especially rare earth metal magnet ingestions – can lead to high morbidity and mortality.

When more than one magnet (or a magnet and another metallic object) are ingested, they can become stuck together through walls in the GI tract, creating risk for obstruction, erosion, fistula formation, and perforation. Sharp metallic foreign objects can be particularly dangerous as they can do much damage while being moved around by the magnet.  

If there is concern for magnet ingestion, care should be taken to try to determine the number ingested (if parents have the magnets, you can compare the size of an object on xray to the size of the magnets as it can otherwise sometimes be difficult to differentiate if it is one magnet or more than one stuck together).  

Higher risk features of ingestion include: 

  • Ingestion of a magnet and a sharp metallic object
  • Higher number of magnets ingested
  • A longer interval over which the magnets were ingested
  • Multiple magnets in the esophagus (raises concern for concomitant aspiration)

 

Ingestions should prompt consultation with pediatric GI and surgery when isolated as many will require either endoscopic or surgical removal. This may include need for referral and transfer.  

 

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Spontaneous Pneumomediastinum in Children: What should I do?

Keywords: Spontaneous Pneumomediastinum, asthma, crepitus, esophagram (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/15/2023 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Spontaneous pneumomediastinum (SPM) is air within the mediastinum in the absence of trauma.  This occurs more often in males and has 2 age peaks: children younger than 6 years as a result of lower respiratory tract infections and adolescents due to asthma exacerbations.  Typical symptoms include chest pain, subcutaneous emphysema and shortness of breath, but can also include neck pain, dysphagia, pneumopericardium, and pneumorrhachis (air in the spinal cord).   SPM has been seen in patients with a history of asthma, current influenza infection and hyperventilation with anxiety, but many have no known precipitating factor. 
The diagnosis of SPM is typically made on CXR.  The literature is mixed on the utility of CT scans, esophagrams, esophagoscopy and bronchoscopy.  This study looked at 179 pediatric patients who were diagnosed with SPM.  No patients were found to have an esophageal injury.  Also, CT scans did not provide additional information or change management based on what was seen on the chest xray.
The author's concluded that CT scans and esophagrams can be avoided unless there is a specific esophageal concern.  Management should be guided based on the patient's symptoms.

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The literature is not completely new regarding the use of intranasal dexmedetomidine for pediatric sedation, with several articles confirming noninferiority to benzodiazepines. It is a potent a2- adrenergic receptor agonist, which allows for sedation without analgesic properties. It can be considered for patients who are undergoing PAINLESS procedures. A recent article gave further clarification for dosing considerations when selecting this option. This study assessed varying weight-based doses and found the best effect with doses of 3 to 4 mcg/kg  

 

Importantly, there is limited data that suggests this may result in longer discharge, duration of procedure and total time in the department compared to other sedation methods. Additionally, this option is not always readily available and approved for pediatric patients in every hospital.  

 

Overall, Dexmedetomidine may be an excellent option for painless procedures, such as CT imaging or even MRI based on the literature, when available. 

 

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It's back to school season which means back to school injuries! 

Scalp lacerations often require suturing or staple closure, but what if you can close the wound without any sharps that scare the kiddos? Consider using the Hair Apposition Technique (HAT)!

What is HAT?

- A very quick and easy technique for superficial scalp laceration closure made by twisting hair on each side of the laceration and sealing the twist with a small dot of glue for primary closure. 

When do I consider HAT?

- For linear, superficial lacerations that are <10cm in length 

- Laceration has achieved adequate hemostasis

- Patient has hair on both sides of the laceration

What are contraindications to HAT? 

- Hair strands are less than 3cm in length

- Laceration is longer than 10cm in length

- Active bleeding from laceration despite hair apposition

- Significant wound tension

- Laceration is highly contaminated

How do I perform HAT?

- Debride wound as you normally wound for any laceration  

- Take approximately 5 strands of hair on one side of the laceration and twist them together to make one twisted bundle

- Take approximately 5 strands of hair directly on the other side of the laceration and twist them together to make another twisted bundle

- Then take each bundle and intertwine the two bundles until the wound edges appose. 

- Place a drop of glue on the twist

- Repeat along the length of the laceration until laceration is closed

Benefits of HAT:

- Based on a RCT from Singapore that compared suturing to HAT for superficial scalp lacerations that were <10cm, patient's were more satisfied, had less scaring, lower pain scores, shorter procedure tiems, adn less wound breakdown in the HAT group compared to the sutured group. 

- A follow up study by the same group also assessed cost-effectievness of HAT compared to suturing (by taking into account staff time, need for staple/suture removal, treatment of complications, materials, etc) and found that HAT saved $28.50 USD when compared to suturing. 

Image

Modified hair apposition of scalp wounds- UpToDate

Bottom Line:

- Consider Hair Apposition Technique (HAT) for linear, superficial scalp lacerations, especially in pediatric patients as it is much more well tolerated (can also do this in adults!)

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric drowning what are the risk factors?

Keywords: Drowning, near drowning, CXR (PubMed Search)

Posted: 8/18/2023 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

This was a retrospective study involving several hospitals in Italy.  135 patients who had drowned (the term used in the article) were included.  4.5% of patients died.  Most drowning occurred in July and August.  The most common comorbidity was epilepsy in about 10% of patients.  Several patients were also witnessed to have trauma and syncope.  Early resuscitation, either by bystanders or trained professionals, was paramount in survival. 

Children who are conscious at presentation and have mild or no respiratory distress have the best prognosis.  A well appearing child should be observed for 6-8 hours, given that 98% of children will present with symptoms within the first 7 hours.  A chest xray is not indicated in the asymptomatic patient.  Patients who are submerged greater than 25 minutes or without ROSC after 30 minutes have a poor prognosis.

Bottom line: Never swim alone and everyone should be trained in bystander CPR.



Category: Pediatrics

Title: Should blood cultures be drawn in a child with fever and lower extremity pain?

Keywords: fever, limp, bacteremia, osteomyelitis, septic joint (PubMed Search)

Posted: 7/21/2023 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

This was a cross sectional review of 698 patients ages 1 year to 18 years who presented to a tertiary care center with fever of at least 38 degrees centigrade and non traumatic acute lower extremity pain. This hospital was located in the North East of the United States. Lower extremity pain was defined as an antalgic gait by report or on exam, inability or refusal to bear weight or reported bone or joint pain in the verbal patient within the past 14 days.
Blood cultures were available for review in 510 patients.  Blood cultures were positive in 70 of them (13.7%).  Pathogens included MSSA, MRSA, Strep pyogenes and Salmonella.  Significant predictors of bacteremia included an elevated CRP and localizing exam findings.  
8 blood culture contaminants were identified.  6/8 of these patients had other testing and treatment consistent with osteomyelitis.  
The final diagnosis of the patients with bacteremia included osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, pyomyositis and toxic shock syndrome.
 
 
Bottom line: The prevalence of bacteremia, even in Lyme endemic areas, in healthy children presenting to the ED with fever AND lower extremity pain is high enough to strongly consider obtaining a blood culture with other lab work during the initial evaluation. 

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric fever: Is response to antipyretics enough to discharge?

Keywords: Pediatrics, infectious disease, fever, bacteremia (PubMed Search)

Posted: 7/14/2023 by Kathleen Stephanos, MD (Updated: 3/19/2024)
Click here to contact Kathleen Stephanos, MD

This study attempts to answer the age old question: What is the importance of fever in pediatric illnesses?

The authors' goal was to assess if response to antipyretics was associated with bacteremia. This article retrospectively reviewed 6,319 febrile children in whom blood cultures were sent and found that 3.8% had bacteremia.  They then looked at the fever curve in response to antipyretics for these two groups in the emergency department over 4 hours. The study concluded that patients with bacteremia have a higher rate of persistent fever despite antipyretics. It is important to note the limitations of this study. As this was retrospective, it is unclear what clinical findings resulted in blood cultures being sent - most febrile children did not have any drawn (23,999 were excluded for this reason). They did not assess other vital signs, and did not address other bacterial infections (UTI, cellulitis, meningitis, otitis media, etc).  Additionally, while patients with bacteremia did have a higher likelihood of fever, the majority of patients in both groups had fever resolution within 4 hours, and both groups had some children with persistent fevers. 

Overall, this does seem to support the decision to consider obtaining further testing in those children with a persistent fever, but also emphasizes the importance of not using fever resolution alone as support for discharge to home or exclusion of bacteremia from the differential. 

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