It's back to school season which means back to school injuries! 

Scalp lacerations often require suturing or staple closure, but what if you can close the wound without any sharps that scare the kiddos? Consider using the Hair Apposition Technique (HAT)!

What is HAT?

- A very quick and easy technique for superficial scalp laceration closure made by twisting hair on each side of the laceration and sealing the twist with a small dot of glue for primary closure. 

When do I consider HAT?

- For linear, superficial lacerations that are <10cm in length 

- Laceration has achieved adequate hemostasis

- Patient has hair on both sides of the laceration

What are contraindications to HAT? 

- Hair strands are less than 3cm in length

- Laceration is longer than 10cm in length

- Active bleeding from laceration despite hair apposition

- Significant wound tension

- Laceration is highly contaminated

How do I perform HAT?

- Debride wound as you normally wound for any laceration  

- Take approximately 5 strands of hair on one side of the laceration and twist them together to make one twisted bundle

- Take approximately 5 strands of hair directly on the other side of the laceration and twist them together to make another twisted bundle

- Then take each bundle and intertwine the two bundles until the wound edges appose. 

- Place a drop of glue on the twist

- Repeat along the length of the laceration until laceration is closed

Benefits of HAT:

- Based on a RCT from Singapore that compared suturing to HAT for superficial scalp lacerations that were <10cm, patient's were more satisfied, had less scaring, lower pain scores, shorter procedure tiems, adn less wound breakdown in the HAT group compared to the sutured group. 

- A follow up study by the same group also assessed cost-effectievness of HAT compared to suturing (by taking into account staff time, need for staple/suture removal, treatment of complications, materials, etc) and found that HAT saved $28.50 USD when compared to suturing. 

Modified hair apposition of scalp wounds- UpToDate

Bottom Line:

- Consider Hair Apposition Technique (HAT) for linear, superficial scalp lacerations, especially in pediatric patients as it is much more well tolerated (can also do this in adults!)

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This was a retrospective study involving several hospitals in Italy.  135 patients who had drowned (the term used in the article) were included.  4.5% of patients died.  Most drowning occurred in July and August.  The most common comorbidity was epilepsy in about 10% of patients.  Several patients were also witnessed to have trauma and syncope.  Early resuscitation, either by bystanders or trained professionals, was paramount in survival. 

Children who are conscious at presentation and have mild or no respiratory distress have the best prognosis.  A well appearing child should be observed for 6-8 hours, given that 98% of children will present with symptoms within the first 7 hours.  A chest xray is not indicated in the asymptomatic patient.  Patients who are submerged greater than 25 minutes or without ROSC after 30 minutes have a poor prognosis.

Bottom line: Never swim alone and everyone should be trained in bystander CPR.

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This study attempts to answer the age old question: What is the importance of fever in pediatric illnesses?

The authors' goal was to assess if response to antipyretics was associated with bacteremia. This article retrospectively reviewed 6,319 febrile children in whom blood cultures were sent and found that 3.8% had bacteremia.  They then looked at the fever curve in response to antipyretics for these two groups in the emergency department over 4 hours. The study concluded that patients with bacteremia have a higher rate of persistent fever despite antipyretics. It is important to note the limitations of this study. As this was retrospective, it is unclear what clinical findings resulted in blood cultures being sent - most febrile children did not have any drawn (23,999 were excluded for this reason). They did not assess other vital signs, and did not address other bacterial infections (UTI, cellulitis, meningitis, otitis media, etc).  Additionally, while patients with bacteremia did have a higher likelihood of fever, the majority of patients in both groups had fever resolution within 4 hours, and both groups had some children with persistent fevers. 

Overall, this does seem to support the decision to consider obtaining further testing in those children with a persistent fever, but also emphasizes the importance of not using fever resolution alone as support for discharge to home or exclusion of bacteremia from the differential. 

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Neonatal rashes are common and, usually, benign. There are some skin findings, however, that require early recognition and treatment for best outcomes. One of these concerning etiologies is omphalitis, infection of the umbilical stump and surrounding tissues.

Features of omphalitis may include erythema and induration around the umbilicus, purulent drainage, and potentially systemic illness.

Risk factors include poor cord hygiene, premature or prolonged rupture of membranes, maternal infection, low birth weight, umbilical catheterization, and home birth.

Evaluation includes surface cultures from the site of infection as well as age-appropriate fever workup if patient is febrile. Consider ultrasound to evaluate for urachal anomalies as these can co-exist.

Management is IV antibiotics to cover S. aureus and gram negatives with surgical consultation if there are signs of necrotizing fasciitis or abscess. Some newer literature suggests that patients with omphalitis seen and treated in high-income countries may not be as sick as previously thought (as most data has been obtained in lower income countries where incidence is higher) and there has been a suggestion that there may be a role for oral antibiotics in well appearing, lower risk infants. This deserves further exploration but cannot yet be considered standard of care.

Other umbilical cord findings to consider (when it isn’t omphalitis): patent urachus, granuloma, local irritation, or partial cord separation

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Bottom Line: IN dexmedetomidine may be a reasonable agent to utilize for anxiolysis in pediatric patients, especially those who have previously had paradoxical reactions or poor efficacy of benzodiazepines. It may be specifically useful when effects are desired for a slightly longer time and for non-painful/minimally painful interventions.  

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Otitis media is a common pediatric complaint seen in the primary care, urgent care, and ED settings. Recommendations for timing of treatment and deferral of treatment have emerged over the last several years, as have recommendations for regimens for recurrent infections in the age of resistant organisms.

When to consider observation over antibiotics:

• If symptoms <48 hours, no severe pain, and fever < 39C and child is 2 years or older (either unilateral or bilateral AOM) OR unilateral AOM with symptoms <48 hours, no severe pain, and fever < 39C and child is 6 months to 2 years
• If observing, consider either a prescription that parents can fill if symptoms persist or ensure prompt primary care follow up

Initial treatment

High dose amoxicillin (90 mg/kg/day divided BID)

• If true penicillin allergy, can use cefdinir or cefpodoxime if tolerated or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or a macrolide (e.g. azithromycin) but rates of resistance are higher
• Cefdinir and azithromycin are the most commonly used  
• Levofloxacin is also an option for age >8 years

Recurrent Otitis Media

If less than 30 days from initial treatment, presumed to be persistent

• If previously on amoxicillin, start amoxicillin-clavulanate (extra strength suspension has highest amoxicillin to clavulanate ratio and should be used)
• If previously on amoxicillin-clavulanate, ceftriaxone either for 3 days or 2 doses 36 hours apart

If greater than 30 days from initial treatment can treat as new episode (so amoxicillin unless previous documented resistant infections)

Duration of Antibiotics

• Less than 2 years, 10 days
• 2 years and up, 5-7 days

Other Considerations

• Amoxicillin-clavulanate should be used as an initial agent if there is concurrent purulent conjunctivitis
• Children with tympanostomy tubes and purulent otorrhea may be treated with otic fluoroquinolones (with or without dexamethasone), as long as debris does not obstruct entry of antibiotic drops
• Remember that the otic canal and TM can become red with fever and non-purulent effusion is common with URI
• Remember to treat pain and fever!

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Should EMS place an advanced airway in out of hospital cardiac arrests?  Current studies suggest that advanced airway management is not superior to BVM in pediatric out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA).  

Pediatric OHCA carries a high mortality rate and those that do survive often have a poor neurologic outcome.  This study evaluated BVM vs supraglottic airway (SGA) placement vs endotracheal intubation (ETI) in relation to one month survival and favorable neurological outcomes.  SGA and ETI were also grouped together and categorized as advanced airway management (AAM).

This study was conducted using the Pan Asian Resuscitation Outcomes Study Clinical Research Network.  3131 pediatric patients were included.  85% received BVM, 11.8% SGA and 2.6 % ETI.  In a matched cohort, one month survival and survival with favorable neurological outcome was higher in the BVM group compared to the AAM group and in the BVM group compared to the SGA group.  There was no significant difference noted between the ETI group and BVM group.

Bottom line: In this study, AAM was associated with decreased one month survival and less favorable neurological status in pediatric OHCA.

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Childhood vaccination has significantly decreased the incidence of bacterial meningitis and bacteremia in infants and young children, specifically vaccines against H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae, shifting broad workups for these disease and empiric antibiosis to younger age groups as rates declined. In recent years the percentage of unvaccinated and under-vaccinated children has been rising due to multiple factors; now over 1% of children in the US under 2 years of age are unvaccinated. The question becomes, should these children be treated more similarly to young infants as they lack to immunity to these organisms?

Literature on this topic is sparse, although, Finkel, Ospina-Jimenez, et al. reviewed the literature available and proposed an algorithm for well appearing children 3-24 months of age without a clear source and a temperature of >39C (102.2F). Recommendations included UA (to determine possible source) in the following patients: fever > 2 days, prior UTI, female or uncircumcised male <12 months, or male <6 months. They also recommended evaluation with viral panel. If no source was determined, they then recommended CBC and procalcitonin with a CXR for WBC > 20,000/mm³. For WBC >15,000/mm³, ANC >10,000/mm³, absolute band count >1,500/mm³, or procalcitonin >0.5ng/mL they recommended blood culture, ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg, and follow up within 24 hours.

Bottom line: Literature is scarce and practice patterns are likely to evolve as ramifications of decrease in vaccination rates become clearer. The above algorithm is proposed, however covers limited situations and may not be practical in all settings. Clinical judgement should be used in the evaluation and management of these patients. A more conservative approach compared to vaccinated infants is reasonable at this time.

 

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Subcutaneous Fluid Administration for Rehydration

• An old school technique (described in the 1800’s) that fell out of favor but still has applicability - primarily in pediatrics although it has been explored for use in geriatrics and mass casualty events (due to ease and speed of use)
• Most appropriate for stable but mildly to moderately dehydrated patients who need rehydration, are not tolerating PO, and in whom an PIV is difficult to establish (this should not replace an IO in a critically ill child)
• Either a small gauge angiocath or butterfly can be used for access
• Most common area to access in younger children is between the shoulder blades, although the lateral abdomen, thighs, or outer upper arms can be used as well; the site must have adequate subcutaneous tissue (can test by pinching between the fingers)
• Subcutaneous catheter placement is generally quite easy, however care should be taken with securing the catheter as there will be expected swelling at the area which can cause dislodgement or discomfort
• Mild erythema may also occur at the site of administration
• Injection of hyaluronidase (150 U) at the site being used increases the volume that can be administered as well as speed of absorption (hospitals may carry this product for treatment of severe PIV infiltration events)
• It is not necessary to have hyaluronidase to utilize subcutaneous fluid administration, but improves efficiency and efficacy
• Fluids administered should be isotonic and can be administered at 20 mL/kg over an hour – this can be repeated as necessary

 

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Once the diagnosis of intussusception is made, there are often delays in 1) getting the patient to a center where reduction can be performed and 2) getting the staff available to perform an air enema, especially during evenings and nights. Previous studies have shown worse outcomes when there is longer than a 24 hour delay in reduction. This was a retrospective single center study looking at 175 cases of intussusception and evaluating the time between the radiology final read of intussusception and the timing of reduction and if enema based reduction was successful. In this group of patients, there was no statistically significant difference in reduction efficacy, requirement for surgical reduction or complication rate (bowel resection or perforation) in the patients studied which included delay intervals up to 8 hours. Successful first attempt reductions ranged from 72-81% in each study group (1hr, 1-3hr, 3-6hr and 6+ hr). The caveat to this study is that there were only 11 patients included in the 6-8 hour group. This study also did not take into account the timing from symptom onset to reduction time. Bottom line: More evidence is needed, but this small study provides evidence that up to 8 hours from radiology diagnosis of intussusception to the 1st reduction attempt was not less efficient compared to those with an attempt in under 1 hour.

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