A 25 year old patient presents to the emergency department (ED) with a first unprovoked seizure. His ED workup is normal and he is back to his baseline, and you plan to discharge the patient with outpatient follow up within 1 week. The patient is requesting to be discharged on an anti-epileptic drug (AED). What do you do?

Educate the patient about the risk of recurrence, and the possible side effects of AEDs!

The American Academy of Neurology (AAN) specifically addressed this in their 2015 guidelines. A few points to remember:

- The risk of recurrence is greatest within the first 2 years, and occurs in 21-45% of patients.

- The risk of recurrence increases with a remote brain lesion or injury, abnormal EEG, significant brain imaging abnormality or nocturnal seizures.

- AED therapy is likely to reduce the risk of a 2nd unprovoked seizure by about 35% over the next 2 years, but the delay in initiating therapy does not increase the long-term remission risk.

Is it different if the patient had multiple seizures within 24 hours?

Patients presenting with multiple seizures in a 24-hour period were as likely to have seizure recurrence as those presenting with a single seizure, irrespective of etiology or treatment.

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A recent survey looked at resuscitation practices that could help improve survival during in-hospital cardiac arrest

• Monitoring for interruptions in chest compressions
• Reviewing cardiac arrest cases monthly
• Adequate resuscitation training

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Exercise and the heart

Exercise increases the risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD) acutely.

Exercise decreases the risk of SCD in the long term.

Regular physical activity (even as little as 15 mins/day) reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). 

Up to 15% of MIs occur during or soon after vigorous physical exercise. This is typically in sedentary men with coronary risk factors.

In a 1993 study, in the first hour after heavy exertion, risk of heart attack rose more than 100-fold from baseline for habitually inactive persons. However, for frequent exercisers, this risk rose less than three-fold. Think of snow shoveling after a winter storm.

Both the Physicians’ Health Study and the Nurses’ Health Study show that the risk of SCD during exertion is reduced by habitual exercise.

If you are physically active, stay active. If you are not active, you should be because exercise has innumerable personal benefits. However, it is important to start gradually Some individuals at higher risk need to start under the guidance of a physician.

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The terms and concepts of “waiver of informed consent’ versus “exception from informed consent” are often confused.  Within the U.S., these concepts are not the same.

• Waiver or alteration of informed consent is for minimal risk research and requires the following 4 conditions:
  • Research involves no more than minimal risk to the subjects;
  • Waiver or alteration will not adversely affect the rights and welfare of the subjects;
  • Research could not practicably be carried out without the waiver or alteration; and
  • Whenever appropriate, the subjects will be provided with additional pertinent information after participation

• Exception from informed consent (EFIC) is permissible for emergency research:
  • Rarely used, only for true emergencies
  • Recognition that there are times/conditions when informed consent is not feasible
    • Length of potential therapeutic window is defined (i.e.- short window)
  • Must hold the potential for direct benefit for the subject
  • Requires special protections and conditions, in addition to the regular ethical review
    • Including a community consultation process

Bottom line:

Waiver of Informed Consent ≠ EFIC

• Exception from informed consent (EFIC) is rarely used and is only for true, life threatening situations.  It requires substantial review and special steps to obtain.
• Waiver of informed consent is commonly used for retrospective chart reviews and similar minimal risk research.

These are the rules and regulations for the U.S. The regulations for emergency research in other countries may or may not be similar to these.

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Can NIV be Used in ARDS?

• Mechanical ventilation can cause lung injury and increase patient morbidity and mortality.
• Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) is well-known to decrease intubation rates and improve patient outcome in select disease states (i.e., COPD, acute CHF).
• For patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), NIV may reduce the work of breathing by opening collapsed alveoli, increasing FRC, and improving oxygenation.
• To date, there are only a few RCTs that have evaluated the use of NIV in ARDS.
• Unfortunately, these trials have failed to demonstrate improved patient outcome or decreased intubation rates in patients with ARDS.
• Clinical Bottom Line: Intubate patients with ARDS who are difficult to oxygenate with standard oxygen therapy.

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Typically, if an infant or young child presents to the ED with concern for intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), CT is performed as a rapid diagnostic tool. Now that clinicians are more aware of the radiation associated with head CT, the possible use of ultrasound was studied. Ultrasound is commonly used in the neonatal population for detecting ICH. A study by Elkhunovich et al looked at children younger than 2 years who had cranial ultrasounds preformed. Over a 5 year period, 283 ultrasounds were done on patients between 0 to 485 days old (median 33 days). There were 39 bleeds detected. Ultrasound specificity and sensitivity was calculated by comparing the results with CT, MRI and/or clinical outcome. For significant bleeds, the sensitivity for ultrasound was 81%. The specificity for detecting ICH was 97%.

Only 2 patients in the study were older than 1 year. The proper windows are easiest to visualize in children younger than 6 months.

Bottom Line: The sensitivity of cranial ultrasound is inadequate to justify its use as a screening tool for detection of ICH in an infant with acute trauma, but it could be considered in situations when obtaining advanced imaging is not an option because of availability or patient condition.

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The American College of Medical Toxicology's ToxIC Registry is a self-reporting database completed by medical toxicologists across 69 insitutions in the US.

• Over a 3 year period, just 10 cases in the database received ECMO: 4 pediatric, 2 adolescent, and 4 adults (individual cases presented in the table below)
• Time of initiation of ECMO ranged from 4 h to 4 days, with duration from 15 h to 12 days
• Exposures included carbon monoxide/smoke inhalation (2), bitter almonds, methanol, and several medications including antihistamines (2), antipsychotic/antidepressant (2), cardiovascular drugs (2), analgesics (2), sedative/hypnotics (2), and antidiabetics (2)
• Overall survival rate was 80%

Application to Clinical Practice

In settings where ECMO is available, it may be a potential treatment option in severely poisoned patients. From the limited data, ECMO was generally administered prior to cardiovascular failure and might be of benefit particularly during the time the drug is being metabolized.

Table from the Case Series

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What Do You Mean By Dizzy?

• Patients with dizziness account for 3% of ED visits.
• The traditional approach based on symptom quality (i.e. “What do you mean by dizzy”) is not reliable.
• Drs. Edlow and Newman-Toker propose a new paradigm based on the timing and triggers of dizziness.

• Acute vestibular syndrome begins abruptly or rapidly and continues for days.  Patients’ dizziness may be exacerbated by movement but is not triggered by movement.
• Triggered episodic vestibular syndrome are repetitive episodes of dizziness triggered by some event.  Patients will be completed asymptomatic at rest and will develop dizziness that is reliably triggered by a specific event or postural shift.
• Spontaneous episodic vestibular syndrome are multiple episodes of dizziness that occur without any clear identifiable trigger.  Patients are asymptomatic between episodes.

Table 1 shows common benign and serious causes of these vestibular syndromes.

Utilizing the HINTS battery or the Dix-Hallpike maneuver, a “safe to go” algorithm for acute vestibular syndrome and triggered episodic vestibular syndrome is outlined in Figure 2.

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Attachments

1604132308_20160413_Table_1.jpg (139 Kb)

1604132309_20160413_Figure_2.jpg (89 Kb)

Disclaimer: Talking about seizures/status that is NOT due to eclampsia

• Propofol (Class B) -- though not recommended for obstetric use by manufacturer
• Benzodiazepines (Class D) -- mostly due to fetal withdrawal syndrome, but some teratogenicity to prolonged exposure inconsistent in literature
• Ketamine (No FDA class assigned but likely Class B Austrailia equivalent)
• Levetiracetam (Class C) -- no clear evidence of major fetal malformations in humans
• Phenytoin, phenobarbitol, carbemazepine, valproic acid and most other common AEDs (Class D due to teratogenicity)

TAKE HOME: While no AEDs are completely safe in pregnancy, treatment and stabilization of maternal status epilepticus is paramount for fetal health. Involve neurology/epileptology and OB/maternal-fetal medicine.

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Orthopedic documentation

1) Document location with specificity and laterality.

2) Document the location with as much specificity as possible

-Name of specific bone and specific site on bone (Shaft, head, neck, distal, proximal, styloid)

3) Document fractures as open/closed, displaced vs. non-displaced, routine or delayed healing,

-Orientation of fractures, such as transverse, oblique, spiral

- Document intra-articular or extra-articular involvement

4) For a particular injury, a complete note will include mention of the following

The joint above (e.g. for shoulder injuries this would be the neck, for hip injuries - the back)

The joint below

Motor (e.g. for arm injuries document the distal median, radial and ulnar motor innervation)

Sensory

Vascular

Skin (for all fractures document intact overlying skin esp. when covering with a splint)

Compartments (a simple mention of compartments are grossly soft/not tense will suffice)

*Especially relevant for forearm and tib/fib injuries

[CORRECTION]: Versed dose is 2-2.5 mg total not mg/kg

Patients with severe agitation present a unique challenge to the emergency department. Acute delirium is often due to psychostimulants such as cocaine, amphetamines, PCP, or synthetic cannabinoids, alcohol, or psychiatric illness. These patients require urgent evaluation necesssitating the use of physical and chemical restraints, not only for their own safety but also the hospital staff's. Fingerstick glucose, pulse oximetry, and vital signs must be expeditiously obtained. Severely agitated combative patients who are physically restrained are at high risk for morbidity from asphyxiation, hypermetabolic consequences (acidosis, hyperthermia, rhabdomyolysis), and death can occur.

Ketamine is phencyclidine derivative that causes dissociative state between the cortical and limbic systems which prevents the higher centers from preceiving visual, auditory, or painful stimuli. Ketamine has a wide safety profile and has been used worldwide for many years with few complications. It possesses ideal characteristics for rapid sedation of agitated patients:

• Rapid onset of action 1-3 minutes
• Preservation of airway reflexes
• Lack of respiratory or cardiac depression or QT prolongation
• Short half-life of 30-40 minutes
• Safe in situations with minimal to no monitoring
• Dose: Intravenous =1.5-2 mg/kg Intramuscular = 5-6 mg/kg (maximum 400 mg)

Experience with Ketamine in patients with excited delirium has shown good initial control of agitation however, patients often require additional medications for deeper or longer duration of sedation. Benzodiazepines are recommmended as second line agents particularly intravenous or intramuscular Midazolam 2-2.5 mg /kg.

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As noted previously, injuries cause substantial morbidity and mortality globally.  How does it vary by age group?

The following table shows that unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for individuals 1-44 years of age. Even when they are not the leading cause of death, injuries cause substantial mortality in all age groups.

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• Amiodarone and lidocaine are commonly used antiarrhythmics for ventricular fibrillation (VF) or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT). Their efficacy towards survival to hospital discharge and neurological outcome, however, has been questioned.
• A recently published study in the NEJM evaluated these drugs by performing a double-blind, randomized, placebo-control trial. The trial evaluated patients presenting with out of hospital cardiac arrest secondary to VF or pulseless VT that is refractory to one or more shock.
• The trial randomized 3,026 patients to receive amiodarone (974), lidocaine (993), or normal saline (i.e., placebo) (1,059); the primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge and the secondary outcome was favorable neurological outcome at hospital discharge. Several sub-group analyses were planned a priori.
• No statistically significant difference was found in hospital survival or neurologic outcomes between any of the groups. Patients who had a witnessed arrest and bystander CPR had higher rates of survival with either lidocaine or amiodarone compared to saline while there was no difference between the two.

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Guidelines recommend loading doses of vancomycin (15-20 mg/kg, up to 30 mg/kg in critically ill patients), but the risk of nephrotoxicity is unknown. A new retrospective cohort study aimed to compare nephrotoxicity in ED sepsis patients who received vancomycin at high doses (>20 mg/kg) versus lower doses (20 mg/kg).

What They Found

• 1,330 patients had three SCr values assessed for the primary outcome

• High-dose initial vancomycin was actually associated with a lower rate of nephrotoxicity (5.8% vs 11.1%)

• After adjusting for age, gender, and initial SCr, the risk of high dose vancomycin compared to low dose was decreased for the development of nephrotoxicity (RR=0.60; 95% CI: 0.44, 0.82)

Application to Clinical Practice

It appears initial loading doses of vancomcyin > 20 mg/kg do not cause increased risk of nephrotoxicity.

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Emergency medicine remains a relatively young and developing specialty in most parts of the world.  However, it is growing in popularity, especially in the U.S.  How competitive is it currently?

For the recent 2016 Match, there were 2476 applicants for 1895 categorical emergency medicine positions from 174 programs.

• Of the 1895 incoming residency positions, 1894 were filled within the Match!
• The vast majority (78.4%) were filled by senior medical students coming directly from U.S. medical schools.

Bottom Line: Emergency medicine remains a highly desired and competitive specialty in the U.S.

Congratulations to all the incoming interns for the 2016-2017 year!

What is cardio-renal syndrome CRS?

• Covers disorders where acute or long-term dysfunction of one organ can cause acute or long-term dysfunction of the other
• Worsening renal failure, diuretic resistance in heart failure, and worsening kidney function during heart failure are all characteristic of the disease process

There are 5 types

1. Acute CRS: abrupt worsening of heart function leading to kidney injury

2. Chronic CRS: chronic heart failure leads to progressive kidney disease

3. Acute renocardiac syndrome: abrupt kidney dysfunction leading to acute cardiac disorder

4. Chronic renocardiac syndrome: chronic kidney disease leading to decreased cardiac function

5. Systemic CRS: Systemic condition leading to both heart and kidney disease

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Metacarpal Fractures

* Localize fracture to head, neck or shaft (neck most common)

5th metacarpal most commonly fractured

* Note amount of angulation, shortening and the presence of malrotation

*Treatment is based on which metacarpal is fractured and the location of the fracture

*The amount of acceptable angulation varies by the digit involved

For example for index and long finger - acceptable angulation of the shaft is 10-20 degrees and neck is 10 to 15 degrees

Whereas for the 5th digit - acceptable angulation for the shaft is 40 degrees and neck is 50 degrees

Pearls

No degree of malrotation is acceptable (document the absence of this!)

Strongly suspect fight bite injury with abrasions/lacerations overlying metacarpal heads

Highly prone to infection given the proximity to the joint capsule

Consider lacerations over metacarpal fractures as open fractures (do not close/discuss management with hand surgery re timing of washout. Many prefer delayed fixation for suspected infections )

Document integrity of the extensor tendon (can be lacerated and retracted)

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Cerebral Venous Thrombosis

• Approximately 25% of patients with cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) will experience neurologic deterioration.
• This is most commonly due to an increase in ICP that results in transtentorial herniation.
• While heparin remains the treatment of choice for CVT, consider the following alternative strategies in the acutely decompensating patient:
  • Endovascular thrombolysis
  • Mechanical thrombectomy
  • Decompressive hemicraniectomy

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A meta-analysis of 74 randomized trials with a total of 58,556 patients was recently published in the Lancet that looked at the effectiveness of NSAIDs in the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) pain.

Briefly, their conclusion was that:

1. Acetaminophen is ineffective as a single-agent in the treatment of OA.
2. Diclofenac 150 mg/day had best evidence to support it as the most effective NSAID available presently with respective to its effectiveness in relieving pain and improving function.
3. They found no evidence that treatment effects varied over the duration of treatment ( no tolerance)
    

You can find the article here http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2816%2930002-2/abstract

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