Opioids & NSAIDs for MSK pain in the ED:  Effectiveness and Harms

 

Study selection:  A recent systematic review in Annals of Internal Medicine attempted to evaluate the effectiveness and harms of opioids for musculoskeletal pain in the emergency department.

Included were RCTs of any opioid analgesic as compared with placebo or a nonopioid analgesic.

Conditions studied:  bone injuries, soft tissue injuries, spinal pain, and mixed presentations.

Out of 2464 articles, they included 42 trials (n=6128).

Effectiveness data:  Opioids were statistically but not clinically more effective in reducing pain in the short term (approximately 2 hours) versus placebo and Tylenol but were not clinically or statistically more effective than NSAIDs.

 

Take home: Opioids and NSAIDs may have about the same pain outcomes.

 

Harm data:  The results on harms were very mixed. Overall, there were fewer harms with NSAIDs than opioids. However, many studies showed less of a difference. The benefit with NSAIDs due to fewer harms may be less in patients with mixed musculoskeletal conditions.

Opioids may carry higher risk for harms than placebo, Tylenol, or NSAIDs. Authors also found that an increased opioid dose may increase harms from opioids.

Limitations: Limited data on long-term outcomes and longer-term pain management

 

 

 

 

 

 

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DOSE VF (DOuble SEquential External Defibrillation for Refractory VF) Trial 

Background - High quality data regarding the use of double sequential external defibrillation (DSED) and vector-change (VC) defibrillation in refractory vfib is limited

Study

-Three-group, cluster-randomized, controlled trial in six Canadian paramedic services

-Study population: 

-OHCA with refractory vfib (initial presenting rhythm of vfib or pulseless VT that was still present after three consecutive rhythm analyses and standard defibrillations separated by 2 minute intervals of CPR) of presumed cardiac etiology (405 patients)

-Some notable exclusion criteria: 

-suspected drug overdose, hypothermia, traumatic cardiac arrest

-Protocol:

-First 3 defib attempts in the standard (anterior-lateral) position

-If remained in vfib after three consecutive shocks randomized to one of:

1. Standard defib for all subsequent attempts (136 pts)

2. VC defib (all subsequent attempts in anterior-posterior position) (144 pts)

3. DSED (applied second set of pads in AP position) with near simultaneously (<1 sec) defib shocks (125 pts)

Results

-Primary outcome: survival to hospital discharge

-38 patients (30.4%) in the DSED group vs. 18 (13.3%) in the standard group (RR 2.21; 95% CI, 1.33 to 3.67) (Fragility index of 9)

-31 patients (21.7%)  in the VC group (RR [vs. standard], 1.71; 95% CI, 1.01 to 2.88) (Fragility index of 1)

-Notable secondary outcome: survival with a good neurologic outcome

-34 patients (27.4%) who received DSED vs. 15 patients (11.2%)  with standard defibrillation (RR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.26 to 3.88)

 

Takeaways/Caveats:

-68% of arrests witnessed, 58% received bystander CPR, median response time of 7.4-7.8 min

-Did not reach planned sample size 2/2 COVID pandemic

-No reporting of post-arrest care (e.g. TTM, PCI)

-Overall rates of survival and good neuro outcome on the higher side even with standard of care

-More/larger studies needed, but can consider DSED for refractory vfib, particularly if you are in a setting without more advanced circulatory support/resources

 

 

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IPV can occur once or over years by a current or former romantic partner.  Types of IPV include: Physical and/or Sexual violence, Stalking, and Psychological/Financial aggression (the use of verbal and non-verbal communication to harm mentally or emotionally and to exert control over another partner). 

IPV is more prevalent that Aortic Dissection and Pulmonary Embolism combined.   Think about how risky it is to NOT recognize IPV.

1:4 women and 1:10 men have been victims of IPV during their lifetime.

1:5 homicide victims are killed by an intimate partner.

Over 50% of female homicide victims are killed by a current or former intimate partner.  Patients who have been strangled are 4 times more likely to be killed within a year.

Your Spidey Sense should go off when:

1. Stories Change
2. History doesn’t match up with injuries
3. Injuries in areas that are concealed, multiple injuries of varying ages, defensive wounds
4. Major delays in seeking care
5. Non-specific complaints - headache, gastric issues
6. Multiple ED visits at odd hours
7. Refusing the use of an interpreter by partner (why we always use an official interpreter)

 

Once patient is identified as a victim:

1. Place victim in a safe, inaccessible by visitors, and hidden area
2. Treat all medical issues
3. Contact Social Work/SAFE/SANE examiner (some institutions will have IPV specific resources)
4. Contact police if patient is willing to report
5. Safe disposition
6. If unable to ensure a safe disposition, be very careful about documentation provided in discharge paperwork and language used

 

 

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Sugammadex works by chelating non-depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBA) such as rocuronium and vecuronium to reverse the effects of paralysis.  Dosing per package insert varies based on time from administration of the NMBA, and side effects, although rare, include severe bradycardia, hypotension, and asystole. While sugammadex is routinely used by our anesthesia colleagues, it is rarely utilized in the emergency department (ED) or intensive care unit (ICU) setting. 

A recent single-center study assessed 11 patients with either a traumatic brain injury (TBI) or intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) who received sugammadex for neurologic assessment in the ED or ICU.  The median dose was 240mg and the median time since last NMBA administration was 101 minutes.

In 6/11 patients, the neurosurgical plan changed and it affirmed a poor prognosis in 3/11 patients. In the ICU patients, sugammadex was associated with reduction in unnecessary tests.

All patients had a GCS of 3T prior to administration and 67% responded to sugammadex with a median increase to 8T (P=0.0156).  MAP reductions were common with a median of -8 mmHg.

Bottom Line:  Sugammadex can assist in determining a neurosurgical or clinical prognosis plan in patients with TBI and ICH.  Larger studies are needed in this patient population and caution should be used inpatients who are already hypotensive or bradycardic.  A reasonable dose, especially when given >1h from intubation would be 200mg.  The team should be available at administration to note changes in GCS.

 

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This retrospective study compared plain radiographs to CT scan for the detection of pelvic fractures in patients over 65 years of age. The authors concluded “Pelvic radiographs have low sensitivity in detecting traumatic pelvic fractures. These radiographically occult fractures may be clinically significant as a cause of long-term pain and may require orthopedic consultation and possible surgical management.”

If you have a high clinical suspicion due to pain or inability to ambulate, CT may be warranted if the X-Ray is negative. 

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Subcutaneous Fluid Administration for Rehydration

• An old school technique (described in the 1800’s) that fell out of favor but still has applicability - primarily in pediatrics although it has been explored for use in geriatrics and mass casualty events (due to ease and speed of use)
• Most appropriate for stable but mildly to moderately dehydrated patients who need rehydration, are not tolerating PO, and in whom an PIV is difficult to establish (this should not replace an IO in a critically ill child)
• Either a small gauge angiocath or butterfly can be used for access
• Most common area to access in younger children is between the shoulder blades, although the lateral abdomen, thighs, or outer upper arms can be used as well; the site must have adequate subcutaneous tissue (can test by pinching between the fingers)
• Subcutaneous catheter placement is generally quite easy, however care should be taken with securing the catheter as there will be expected swelling at the area which can cause dislodgement or discomfort
• Mild erythema may also occur at the site of administration
• Injection of hyaluronidase (150 U) at the site being used increases the volume that can be administered as well as speed of absorption (hospitals may carry this product for treatment of severe PIV infiltration events)
• It is not necessary to have hyaluronidase to utilize subcutaneous fluid administration, but improves efficiency and efficacy
• Fluids administered should be isotonic and can be administered at 20 mL/kg over an hour – this can be repeated as necessary

 

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Airway Pressure Release Ventilation (APRV) is an "advanced" mode of mechanical ventilation that has long been considered a "rescue" mode of ventilation and has recently garnered much more attention during the COVID pandemic.  Given the long boarding times of critical care patients in the ED with widespread improvement in sight, I wanted to send out some great resources that have come out recently delineating the difference in thought process between APRV as a "rescue" mode and as a "primary" mode.

Rory Spiegel of EMNerd and former UMMC CCM fellow has recently given a great talk on APRV and its use as a rescue mode of ventilation. See also Phil Rola's recent paper listed on that webpage.

https://emcrit.org/emcrit/aprv-for-lung-rescue/

 

APRV as a primary mode of ventilation has been used in the STC for years and is often referred to in the literature according to the basic ventilatory philsophy called Time Controlled Adaptive Ventilation. I realize this may be heresy to some and perhaps a curiousity to others. I recommend you take some time to peruse the following resources:

1. Dr. Habashi has done a great deal of work in the basic and translation literature on APRV and TCAV. His recent review dispels many myths and concerns surrounding APRV

Myths and Misconceptions of Airway Pressure Release Ventilation: Getting Past the Noise and on to the Signal - https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2022.928562/full

2. The TCAV Network has great resources for those who want to do a deeper dive into this topic. 

https://www.tcavnetwork.org/

(Can also find their recommended protocols at the Multi Trauma Critical Care education website: https://stcmtcc.com/handouts/)

 

Attachments

• 2211021655_fphys-13-928562_(2).pdf (5,575 Kb)
• 2211021655_Standard_Settings_for_APRV_using_the_TCAV_Method.pdf (1,525 Kb)
• 2211021655_APRV_TCAV_Rescue_Strategy_Strategy_Guidelines_2020.pdf (1,614 Kb)

Traditional trauma teaching is to admit trauma patients with abdominal wall ecchymosis caused by seat belts (seat belt sign) for fear of missing a hollow viscus injury leading to peritonitis and sepsis.  

Over the past few years there have been studies pointing toward the safety of discharging blunt abdominal trauma patients with a negative CT even if they do have a seat belt sign.

In this most recent study, a negative CT was defined as 

1. No free fluid (free fluid was the leading indicator of occult hollow viscus injury)

2. No solid organ injury

3. No bowel wall irregular contours, thickening, hematoma or air

4. No abdominal wall soft tissue contusion

5. No mesenteric stranding or hematoma

6. No bowel dilatation

If the patient’s CT did not include any of these findings, there was a 0.01% chance of finding a delayed hollow viscus injury. The authors conclude it is safe to discharge patients meeting these criteria. 

If we include no rebound or guarding on physical exam along with a negative CT scan, it appears to be safe to discharge trauma patient’s with seat belt sign.

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Arterial line waveform interpretation and troubleshooting are essential skills for any physician caring for critically ill patients. Overdamping and underdamping of the arterial line waveform leads to inaccurate systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings which can lead to unidentified hypertension or hypotension. In addition to scrutiny of the arterial waveform pattern, the square-wave test is a tool to identify overdamped or underdamped arterial lines. 

Overdamped arterial waveforms will underestimate systolic blood pressure and overestimate diastolic blood pressure. Underdamping will have the opposite effect and overestimate systolic blood pressure and underestimate diastolic blood pressure. In both cases, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) often remains the same.  

The square-wave test is a rapid flush that is applied to the arterial line for approximately 1 second. This rapid high-pressure surge results in vibration and oscillation of the arterial catheter. These oscillations are then read by the pressure transducer and the number and amplitude of these oscillations can be measured. 0 or 1 oscillations is suggestive of overdamping. 3 or more oscillations is suggestive of an underdamped system. 

Major causes of an overdamped arterial line waveform include low infusion bag pressure, loose connectors, air bubbles in the tubing, blood clot in the circuit, or kinking of vascular catheter. An underdamped arterial line, however, is caused by overly stiff circuit tubing or a defective transducer.   

 

Scrutiny of the arterial waveform and utilization of the square-wave test can be helpful to both identify erroneous arterial line blood pressure readings as well as suggest likely corrective measures.  

 

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Attachments

• 2210242137_Arterial_line_overdamped_and_underdamped_examples.jpg (112 Kb)

This meta-analyisis looked at whether obesity was a protective factor for penetrating trauma (the armour phenomenon). The authors concluded that insteaed of being protective, obesity added to morbidity and mortality.

"Obese patients that sustained stab injuries underwent more nontherapeutic operations. Obese patients that sustained gunshot injuries had longer intensive care and total hospital length of stay. Obese patients suffered more respiratory complications and were at an increased risk of death during their admission."

Further evidence that obesity is a major health concern in both medical and trauma pateints. 

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Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) 

 

• A spectrum of conditions related to hip development in infants & young children
• Results from abnormal development of the acetabulum and proximal femur
• Results in mechanical instability of the hip joint 
• Left hip (3:1) vs Right
• Female sex (5:1)
• Breech presentation (20%)
• Family history of DDH
• Infants and young children with untreated hip dislocation rarely have pain or other limitations.
• Most affected children begin to walk and reach developmental milestones at the appropriate time.
• In cultures where tight swaddling with the lower limbs in extension is common, significantly higher rates of DDH have been reported.
• In South Australia 79% of those with DDH were tightly swaddled
• In Japan, when traditional swaddling was used, the incidence of DDH was 5%.
• A public campaign to switch to wrapping techniques encouraging hip flexion and abduction led to DDH rates falling to less than 0.4%.
• https://res.cloudinary.com/dbwozcf0d/images/f_auto,q_auto/v1589948650/10624649_794826423982877_5167788043433556178_n/10624649_794826423982877_5167788043433556178_n.jpg

 

Once the diagnosis of intussusception is made, there are often delays in 1) getting the patient to a center where reduction can be performed and 2) getting the staff available to perform an air enema, especially during evenings and nights. Previous studies have shown worse outcomes when there is longer than a 24 hour delay in reduction. This was a retrospective single center study looking at 175 cases of intussusception and evaluating the time between the radiology final read of intussusception and the timing of reduction and if enema based reduction was successful. In this group of patients, there was no statistically significant difference in reduction efficacy, requirement for surgical reduction or complication rate (bowel resection or perforation) in the patients studied which included delay intervals up to 8 hours. Successful first attempt reductions ranged from 72-81% in each study group (1hr, 1-3hr, 3-6hr and 6+ hr). The caveat to this study is that there were only 11 patients included in the 6-8 hour group. This study also did not take into account the timing from symptom onset to reduction time. Bottom line: More evidence is needed, but this small study provides evidence that up to 8 hours from radiology diagnosis of intussusception to the 1st reduction attempt was not less efficient compared to those with an attempt in under 1 hour.

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Emergency physicians are familiar with posterior reversible [leuko]encephalopathy syndrome as an entity associated with untreated hypertension. It also happens to be a well-documented entity amongst solid organ transplant patients.  

While the exact pathophysiology remains unclear, PRES is characterized by posterior subcortical vasogenic edema due to blood-brain barrier disruption, usually in the setting of elevated blood pressure with loss of cerebral autoregulation and/or endothelial dysfunction.

The immunosuppressants used in this population, namely calcineurin inhibitors (CNI) such as tacrolimus and cyclosporine, are thought to contribute most to this endothelial dysfunction and development of PRES in transplant patients, although high-dose corticosteroids, ischemia-reperfusion injury during surgery, and antibiotics have also been implicated. 

Presentation of PRES post-transplant:

Clinical symptoms:

• Seizures (75-85%)
• AMS - confusion/somnolence (30-40%)
• Headache (25-50%)
• Vision disturbance (20-40%)

Time course:

• Within weeks to a year posttransplant, rarely after a year
• Rapid onset once it starts, can develop over hours to days

Diagnostics:

• Labs nonspecific, although supratherapeutic CNI levels are often associated with:
  • Acute renal injury
  • Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis
  • Hyperkalemia
  • Hypomagnesemia
  • Hypercalciuria
• Thoughts on checking FK506 (tacrolimus) levels
  • For transplant patients, usually advise only checking troughs (~12 hrs after last dose)
  • A low random level may rule out CNI toxicity but not PRES
  • A high random level isn't really helpful
• MRI is diagnostic modality of choice >> subcortical edema, usually bilateral, symmetric, in parieto-occipital regions

Management:

1. Stabilization via supportive care – seizure, cerebral edema, BP management as applicable, etc.
2. Withdrawal/holding of offending agent – will require consultation with transplant physician and pharmacist usually by inpatient team
   • Mixed data re: use of CYP-inducers to lower CNI levels in CNI toxicity

Bottom Line: 

Patients with a history of solid organ transplant are at risk for PRES. While ED stabilization of these patients remains the same, recognition of PRES as a potential etiology for a transplant patient's presentation is crucial to proceed with important testing and necessary changes to their immunosuppressive regimen. 

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In this prospective, observational study performed at 25 urban trauma centers, police transport (18%) was compared to Advanced Life Support (ALS) transport (81%) for mortality in penetrating trauma patients with an injury severity score over 16. There was no difference in outcome for those transported by ALS.

The authors conclude "Police transport of penetrating trauma patients in urban locations results in similar outcomes compared with ALS. Immediate transport to definitive trauma care should be emphasized in this patient population."

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Needless to say, therapeutics for COVID-19 pneumonia have been controversial.  From hydroxychloroquine to ivermectin to remedesivir to steroids to bleach (sorry, but it had to be said...),  it depends on who you ask whether medications make a difference in COVID, how much of a difference, when they should be given, and what the correct dose is. 

Dexamethasone, however, ala the RECOVERY trial, is one of the relatively few therapies supported by the majority of the literature and guidelines, and generally is recommended when respiratory support is required for COVID-19 pneumonia.  Further add to this that steroids for ARDS is a long-running point of critical care controversy (e.g. DEXA-ARDS, Meduri, etc), and all you need to say to an intensivist is "how much steroid should I give this patient?" and you can walk away and come back 10 minutes later to find them having not noticed you had ever left.

Wu et all did a fairly small (n=107) single-centered RCT looking at dexamethasone 6 mg daily vs dexamethasone 20 mg daily for COVID-19 requiring O2.  There are several notable limitations to this study, but in short it did NOT add support to the notion that higher dose dexamethasone is a good thing for COVID-19 pneumonia.  In fact, the 20 mg group trended towards worse outcomes.  Small sample size, single-center, limited follow up, variable use of biologics between the groups, and failure to investigate intermediate doses between 6 and 20 are all significant limitations of this trial. Of note, DEXA-ARDS, which was conducted before COVID (2013-2018), looked at 20 mg x 5 days followed 10 mg x 5 days and DID find a significant benefit, as well as pretty darn good NNT and p values (and was a higher quality trial), so in my opinion it is also not unreasonable to use DEXA-ARDS dosing if the patient meets moderate-severe ARDS (P:F < 200) criteria, even though of course DEXA-ARDS was before COVID and Wu et al slightly contradicts it. 

When faced with a very sick COVID-19 pneumonia patients many intensivists will do either RECOVERY or DEXA-ARDS dexamethasone (with relatively limited basis to choose one vs the other), and some will do Meduri protocol methylprednisolone (1-2 mg/kg/day).  Relatively few nowadays will omit steroids unless there's a contraindication.

 

Bottom Line: It probably remains a good idea to give dexamethasone to your COVID-19 pneumonia patients with hypoxia, but you can probably stick to RECOVERY (see reference below; 6 mg daily x 10 days) dosing as opposed to higher doses.  If they're REALLY sick (P:F < 200), consider DEXA-ARDS (20 mg x 5 days followed by 10 mg x 5 days) dosing.

 

The use of the shock index (systolic blood pressure/heart rate) value under 0.9 has been shown to be effective in predicting the need for mass blood transfusion as well as mortality for trauma patients age 16-64. Using age times shock index has been shown to be an effective marker of mortality and the need for transfer/transport to a trauma center in those over age 65. The change in shock index over time is also useful for pre-hospital providers deciding the appropriate destination for traumatically injured individuals. 

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Popliteal artery entrapment syndrome (PAES)

 

 

CC:  Exertional lower leg pain, however, compression of posterior neurovascular structures can lead to nonspecific vascular and neurogenic symptoms.

Challenging diagnosis to make because of close overlap with chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS).

Anatomic PAES has a prevalence of 0.62% to 3.5% in the general population. Patients are more likely to be older be older, male, and have lower levels of activity.

Functional popliteal artery entrapment (FPAE) however has no anatomic anomaly. Sx’s are thought to be because of bulky surrounding muscle crowding with repetitive dynamic injury. This is most commonly from the medial head of the gastrocnemius.  Patients are younger and more likely to be involved in athletics. Most athletes were involved in sports that put high value on repetitive plantarflexion, such as track and field (45%), soccer (25%), water sports (8%), lacrosse (6%), basketball (6%), 

Sx’s:  bilateral (25-75% of cases) cramping in the region of the soleus and plantar paresthesias.

Common exacerbating mechanism: ascending stairs or climbing inclines because of leg/knee position of extension with plantarflexion 

 

In one review, 31% of patients who underwent debulking surgery for FPAES had been previously treated and extensively worked up at outside institutions for CECS, and already undergone various compartment releases.

 

Patients in one study underwent a dynamic CTA protocol. A positive test demonstrated normal flow in neutral position and compression or complete occlusion of the popliteal artery by the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle against the lateral femoral condyle with provocative foot plantarflexion. Images below.

https://images.journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/Original.00149619-202210000-00008.F1.jpeg

 

Nearly three-fourths of athletes limited by FPAES demonstrated full return to prior competitive levels with four compartment fasciotomy AND surgical debulking of the anterolateral quadrant of the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle. 

 

 

 

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• Anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA) is a rare congenital defect in which there is an altered origin of the left coronary artery (also known as Bland-White-Garland syndrome)
• Generally asymptomatic at birth, but can present in late infancy, toddlerhood, or later with signs of congestive heart failure, a myocarditis picture, or sudden cardiac death
• Flow through the left coronary artery is normal at birth due to high pulmonary pressures, but as those pressures drop the blood flow drops as well and may become reversed due to the pressure gradient
• This can cause chronic myocardial ischemia, the severity of which, is dependent on collateral flow
• Most patients will also develop mitral regurgitation
• Cardiomegaly may be seen on CXR (and some patients will present with respiratory symptoms/wheezing)
• EKG findings include: findings consistent with ischemia (ST changes, q waves – specifically in the anterolateral leads), leftward axis (for age), abnormal R wave progression (loss of R wave amplitude in affected leads)
• Diagnosis can generally be made with echocardiogram (although not 100% sensitive) and the disease is generally treated with surgical repair

 

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Optimal Timing of Source Control in Sepsis

• Sepsis is the most common critical illness encountered in the emergency department.
• Much of the resuscitation of patients with sepsis is focused on early and appropriate antibiotic administration, appropriate fluid resuscitation, vasopressor support, and continued hemodynamic monitoring.
• Another critical pillar in sepsis resuscitation is source control.  To date, there is varying literature on the optimal timing of source control in sepsis.
• In a recent cohort study of approximately 5,000 patients with community-acquired sepsis, Reitz and colleagues report a 29% reduction in risk-adjusted odds of 90-day mortality for patients who had early source control (< 6 hours) compared to those with late source control (6-36 hours).
• The greatest reduction in risk-adjusted 90-day mortality with early source control occurred in patients with gastrointestinal/abdominal and soft-tissue sources of infection.
• Take Home Pearl: Early source control matters in sepsis resuscitation, especially in sicker patients with a GI or soft-tissue source of infection.

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Piperacillin-tazobactam is one of the most commonly used antipseudomonal antibiotics in the empiric management of patients with septic shock. The package insert recommends dose reductions for renal impairment in other infectious etiologies, but the impact of dose reduction has not been previously studied in patients with septic shock.

A recent retrospective, observational cohort study compared outcomes of patients with septic shock who received ≥ 27 grams (at least 3.375 gm q6 hours x 48 h-“NORM”) versus those who received < 27 grams (“LOW”) over the initial 48 h of septic shock (defined as concomitant norepinephrine infusion).  

Patients were excluded if they had death or hospice disposition within the 48h study period. The primary outcome was the number of norepinephrine free days (NFD) at day 28. Propensity matching was utilized to account for confounders.

Results: 351 in the LOW group, 928 in the NORM group with 608 pairs in the propensity matched assessment.

• Patients in the LOW group were
  • Older (65 v 61, p < 0.001)
  • More likely to have lower renal function (20% with CrCl < 20, 35% with CrCl 20-40) which corresponds to package insert dose reduction recommendations
  • Received lower doses of piperacillin/tazobactam (20.3 g v 30.4 g, < 0.001)
• Norepinephrine free days were statistically significantly higher in the NORM dosing group when looking at all patients and the propensity score matched patients.
• In-hospital mortality/hospice disposition was also lower in the NORM group (25.9% v 35.5%, p=0.014

Bottom Line: Dose reductions of piperacillin-tazobactam appears to be harmful early in the management of patients with septic shock.

 

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