UMEM Educational Pearls

A 25 year old athlete presents to the ED with right anterior shoulder pain.

Pain radiates into proximal biceps.

It is worse with heavy lifting and especially “pulling” exercises at the gym.

How do we evaluate for biceps tendonitis?

1. Tenderness to palpation in the bicipital groove
2. Speed’s test
3. Yergason’s test

Pathology is often the long head of the biceps

https://physioworks.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/biceps-tendonitis.jpg

Start by palpating this area and attempt to reproduce the discomfort

Speed’s test

• Arm is supinated and extended and elevated against examiner’s  downward resistance
• https://youtu.be/N00gA4Pvsbw

Yergason’s test

• Arm is placed to patient’s side, in pronation and flexed to 90 degrees at elbow
• Patient attempts to supinate and externally rotate arm against resistance
• https://youtu.be/rQ2Mp6aSi88

To determine if the child is prepubescent, look for the lack of pubic hair, clitoral size, configuration of the hymen, breast development, and axillary hair growth. A Tanner stage of 1 would be consistent with prepuberty.

The proper positioning for the physical exam will allow the child to be comfortable and the examiner to obtain an adequate view including up to one-third of the vagina.

If the child is small enough, they can lay in the parent’s lap. For a larger child, you can have the parent sit in the bed with the patient or stand near the child’s head. Engage child life if available.

The frog leg position with gentle downward and outward traction of the labia at the 5- and 7-o’clock positions provides the optimal view.

The knee to chest position is helpful when further evaluation is needed.

A rectovaginal exam is useful for evaluation of masses or foreign body only and is not routinely needed. Place the examiner’s little finger in the rectum and the other hand on the abdomen and palpate.

The use of a vaginal speculum is rarely needed in prepubertal children; if it is needed, perform the exam under anesthesia.

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Summary

Our group performed a meta-analysis to assess whether it is safe to infuse vasopressor through peripheral venous catheters.  We identified 9 studies with a total of 1835 patients.  The prevalence of complications among the pooled patient population was 9%.  Up to 96% of the complications was extravasation and almost no complications required any treatment.

A few studies reported safe infusion of norepinephrine up to 0.1 mcg/kg/min for up to 24 hours.

In exploratory meta-regression, catheter size 20 or larger was negatively associated with the rate of complications.

We also observed that studies that were published within the past 5 years reported significantly lower rate of complications from older studies.  This suggested that with careful planning and monitoring, it is safe to start vasopressor through peripheral IV.

Limitation

most of the included studies were observational. No studies had enough power to statistically analyze any variables that could predict complications.

Bottom line: we should start vasopressor as soon as indicated, if we have good, reliable IV access.

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• Migraine is the 2nd most common neurologic disorder after tension headache and accounts for more disability than all other neurologic disorders combined.
• Diagnosis is clinical and defined by at least 5 episodes of headache that meet the following criteria:
  • Duration of 4 to 72 hours (when untreated or unsuccessfully treated)
  • At least 2 characteristics: unilateral, pulsating, moderate-to-severe pain intensity, aggravated by physical activity
  • Accompanied by at least 1 symptom: nausea, vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia
• Aura symptoms must be fully reversible and may be visual, sensory, speech/language, motor, brainstem, or retinal.
• Early treatment while the headache is still mild include NSAIDs followed by triptans.
  • Opioids and barbiturates are not recommended due to adverse effects and risk of dependency.
• Preventive treatment is recommended for patients who have at least 2 migraine days per month and whose lives are adversely affected.
  • Common therapies include antihypertensive agents (e.g. propranolol), antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline), anticonvulsants (e.g. topiramate, valproate), and calcium-channel blockers (flunarizine).

Bottom Line: Migraine is a common and debilitating condition that benefits from early treatment. Consider initiating preventive therapy for patients who experience at least 2 migraine days per month and adverse effects despite treatment.

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What is the cause of Mad honey poisoning?

Grayanotoxin

Grayanotoxin is a neurotoxin that is found in honey contaminated with nectar of Rhododendron plants. It binds to activated/open neuronal sodium channels and prevents inactivation of sodium channels. Case reports of mad honey poisoning is often reported in the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. Commercial honey producers frequently mix honeys from multiple sources to decrease the grayanotoxin contamination.

Mad honey poisoning is rarely fatal and generally resolves within 24 hours. Commonly reported symptoms include dizziness, weakness, impaired consciousness/disorientation, excessive perspiration, nausea/vomiting, and paresthesia. In severe intoxication, patients can experience complete AV block, bradycardia/asystole, hypotension, and syncope. 

Management is primarily supportive with atropine and IV fluids.

As the number of COVID-19 cases rises worldwide, prehospital and emergency department healthcare workers remain at high risk of exposure and infection during CPR for patients with cardiac arrest and potential SARS-CoV-2. 

Existing evidence supports similar cardiac arrest outcomes in airways managed with a supraglottic airway (SGA) compared to endotracheal intubation (ETT).¹  It is generally accepted that the best airway seal is provided with endotracheal intubation + viral filter, but how well do SGAs prevent spread of aerosols? 

In CPR simulation studies:

• Cuffed endotracheal tube + viral filter provides effective seal to prevent aerosolization during CPR.²
• SGA + viral filter decreases AP spread compared to facemask and compared to bag-valve mask ventilation during CPR.³
• Notable aerosolization is seen with SGAs, with no difference between AuraGain, I-gel, LMA Proseal, LMA Supreme, Combitube, or LTS-D.²

• Ventilating through an SGA + viral filter is likely better to limit spread of aerosolized particles than bag-valve mask ventilation.
• SGAs allow egress of aerosolized particles, although the amount and area of distribution in clinical practice is unclear, and endotracheal intubation with a cuffed endotracheal tube remains the best way to avoid ongoing aerosolized particle spread with chest compressions. 
• Appropriate PPE remains crucial to limiting healthcare workers' risk of infection and must be prioritized, even/especially in the management of patients in cardiac arrest. 

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The current COVID-19 pandemic and known aerosolized transmission has triggered many ED process changes, including the discouragement of utilizing nebulizers to administer inhaled bronchodilators such as albuterol for concern of spread. Historically, both patients and providers preferred the use of nebulizers as they are easier to use and the belief was that they were more effective than meterd dose inhalers. However, evidence based data has consistently shown that for both adult and pediatric patients that when MDI's are used WITH a spacer:

• There is NO significant difference in efficacy outcome.
• Nebs are associated with greater increase in tachycardia and tremors.
• Nebs are more costly overall.
• MDI's were associated with shorter ED stays and fewer hospital admissions for pediatric patients.

Albuterol:  2.5 mg nebulizer solution = 3-5 MDI puffs

Albuterol: 5 mg nebulizer solution = 5-10 MDI puffs

Ipratropium: 0.25 mg nebulizer solution = 2 MDI puffs

Ipratropium: 0.5 mg nebulizer solution = 4 MDI puffs

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Transfer of chemical from their original container to an unlabeled or different container (e.g. Gatorade bottle) is one of the common causes of unintentional poisoning. 

A retrospective study of National Poison Data System from 2007 – 2017 identified 45,512 cases of unintentional exposure/ingestion of chemicals contained in unlabeled/incorrectly labeled containers. 

Result

Annual reported cases increased from 3,223 in 2007 to 5,417 in 2017.

• Median age: 30 years (interquartile range: 6 – 53)
• Female: 52%

Most commonly involved products included

• Cleaning products: 38.2%
  • Bleach, 18.8%
  • Peroxides, 5.7%
  • Anionic cleaners, 4.6%
• Disinfectants: 17.3%
• Hydrocarbons: 5.0%

These exposures led to 

• ED visits: 9,369 (20.6%) 
• Hospitalization: 1,856 (4.1%) 
• Deaths: 23 (0.1%)

The majority of these exposures were non-toxic in nature (72%) but serious outcomes were noted in 4.4% of the cases, including 23 deaths.

Highest morbidity was associated with:

• Pesticides: 10.3%
• Prescription medications: 9.8%
• Herbicides: 7.6%

Deaths

• Hydrofluoric acid and herbicides accounted for 13 of 23 deaths (57%), followed by cleaning products (7/23).

Conclusion

• Transfer of a chemical to unlabeled/different container is a well-recognized risk factor of poisoning.
• Although small in number, the annual reported cases to the regional poison center are increasing.

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Ulnar Collateral ligament injuries of the elbow

Overhead throwing athletes are at risk of insufficiency and rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the elbow

This can lead to valgus instability similar to what can occur in the knee

Overhead throwing places a significant valgus stress on the elbow

Though classically seen in baseball pitchers, may also be seen in javelin throwers and other high velocity throwing sports

In the acute setting may be seen after an elbow dislocation

History includes a “pop” and medial elbow pain following throwing activities

In cases of overuse injury, athletes will report a progressive loss of velocity, accuracy, and/or endurance with throwing.

The ulnar collateral ligament is the primary restraint to valgus stress from 30 to 120 degrees of flexion

One classic test for UCL instability is the milking maneuver

Patient may be sitting or standing

Patient’s forearm is supinated and elbow flexed at 90 degrees

A valgus force is applied by pulling the patient’s thumb while the examiner’s other hand stabilizes the elbow and palpates the medial joint line. 

Instability, pain or apprehension at the UCL is considered a positive test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbn24X_qqn0

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is well known as the accepted antidote for acute acetaminophen (tylenol/paracetamol) overdose and is well studied for this indication.  While the literature base is not nearly as strong in other causes of acute liver failure, NAC is increasingly used in these scenarios as well.  In the emergency department in particular, the cause of fulminant hepatic failure is often not known.  NAC may have some protective benefit in non-acetaminophen acute liver failure.  Existing data do not show a mortality benefit to NAC in non-acetaminophen acute liver failure, but do show improvement in transplant-free survival.  The AASLD guidelines (last revised in 2011) do not comment on NAC in non-acetaminophen acute liver failure.  A common practice is to continue NAC until the INR is < 2 and AST/ALT have decreased at least 25% from their peak values.  

Patients in fulminant liver failure should also be strongly considered for transfer to a center that does liver transplant, if presenting to a non-transplant center.  The King's College criteria is the most commonly used prognostic score for determining need of transfer to a transplant center, but in addition to calculating a King's College score providers should generally consider consultation with a transplant hepatologist for any fulminant liver failure patient to discuss the risks/benefits of transfer for transplant evaluation.

Bottom Line: While not as strongly indicated as it is in acute acetaminophen induced liver failure, NAC should be considered in both non-acetaminophen liver failure and liver failure of unknown etiology.  In addition, strongly consider consultation with a transplant hepatologist in any case of fulminant hepatic failure.

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A labial adhesion is defined as a thin avascular clear plane, a raphe, between the labia minora. These adhesions which can be caused by minor trauma or infection in the absence of estrogen  can cause varying degrees of obstruction.  

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Dihydropyridine (calcium channel blocker) overdose is one of the leading causes of death from cardiovascular drug poisoning. In contrast, angiotensin-II receptors blockers (ARBs) and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEIs) causes minimal toxicity in overdose. Frequently, these medications are co-ingested with dihydropridines. 

Recently, a retrospective study was conducted to evaluate the hemodynamic impact of  dihydropyridines with ARBs/ACEIs co-ingestion.

Results

Cohort

• 68 mixed overdoses of dihydropyridines with ARBs/ACEIs
• 21 single agent overdose (dihydropyridines)

Mixed overdose group had:

• Lower median nadir mean arterial pressure: 62 vs. 75 mmHg (p<0.001)
• Higher OR for hypotension: OR 4.5, (95% CI: 1.7 – 11.9)
• Higher OR for bradycardia: OR 8.8 (95% CI: 1.1 – 70) 
• Lower minimum systolic blood pressure by 11.5 mmHg (95% CI: 4.9 – 18.1)

Higher proportion of the mixed overdose group received:

• IV fluids: OR 5.7, (95% CI: 1.8-18.6)
• Antidotes and/or vasopressor: OR 2.9 (95% CI: 1.004 – 8.6)

Conclusion

Combined overdose of dihydropyridines with ARBs/ACEIs can result in more significant hypotension.

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• When dealing with weakness and sensory complaints in the ED, the time course of symptoms and physical exam findings help identify emergent conditions.
• We often talk about upper motor neuron vs. lower motor neuron signs that distinguish whether a lesion is in the central or peripheral nervous system.
• Characteristics that differentiate between central vs. peripheral nervous system pathology include:

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Blood Pressure Management in Acute Ischemic Stroke

• Blood pressure (BP) is elevated in many patients who present to the ED with an acute ischemic stroke (AIS).
• Severe elevations in BP are associated with hemorrhagic transformation, as well as cardiac and renal complications.
• As such, it is important to know the various BP goals for patients with an AIS.
  • Permissive hypertension with a BP less than or equal 220/120 mm Hg is recommended for patients not receiving IV-tPA or endovascular therapy.
  • BP should be lowered to less than or equal to 180/105 mm Hg for patients who have received IV-tPA.
  • BP goals for patients who have received endovascular therapy remain controversial and should be individualized based on the degree of recanalization.

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Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)

The hallmark of classic CTS:  pain or paresthesia (numbness and tingling) in a distribution that includes the median nerve territory, with involvement of the first three digits and the radial half of the fourth digit.

The symptoms of CTS are typically worse at night and often awaken patients from sleep.

Fixed sensory loss is usually a late finding

Involves the median-innervated fingers BUT spares the thenar eminence.

This pattern occurs because the palmar sensory cutaneous nerve arises proximal to the wrist and passes over, rather than through, the carpal tunnel.

Consider a more proximal lesion in cases involving sensory loss in the thenar eminence

            Example: pronator syndrome

Nitroglycerin is a potent vasodilator used most commonly for the treatment of angina and ACS.  It can also be administered as a continuous infusion for acute management of a hypertensive emergency or sympathetic crashing acute pulmonary edema.  

Most are aware of asking men for history of medications for erectile dysfunction (PDE5 inhibitors: sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil) but many overlook the fact that men and women may be on these medications chronically for pulmonary hypertension. Men can also be on these medications for the treatment of BPH. Be broad in your history taking and do not limit the discussion to erectile dysfunction or a specific gender.

Drug interaction:

-PDE5 inhibitors prevent the breakdown of cGMP

-Nitrates are nitric oxide donors that increase the production of cGMP

-The combination can lead to excessive vasodilation

If accidentally co-administered:

There is no antidote for this medication error.  Support the patient with Trendelenburg positioning, fluid administration, and if needed, vasopressors such as norepinephrine until blood pressure stabilizes.

How long should you wait to administer nitrates after a patient takes a PDE5 Inhibitor?

Sildenafil and vardenafil: 24 h after last dose*

Tadalafil > 48 h after last dose*

*Even if acute ACS event

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Acute appendicitis is the most common etiology requiring urgent abdominal surgery in children in the United States. Peak incidence occurs in the second decade of life, with male patients being more commonly affected than female patients. Classic manifestations of appendicitis occur in school-aged children and adolescents, but are often absent in younger children. Infants and young children <5 years are more likely to present with nonspecific or atypical findings, resulting in delays in diagnosis and higher rates of perforation.

Diagnosis is aided by clinical factors, lab findings, and ultrasound (+/- CT or MRI if ultrasound is equivocal).

Historically, the standard of care for acute appendicitis has been urgent operative management. However, in the past several years, there has been increasing literature supporting nonoperative management (antibiotics only) in adult patients with acute uncomplicated appendicitis. Additionally, there is a growing body of evidence demonstrating the safety and efficacy of nonoperative management for uncomplicated appendicitis in children.

Hartford and Woodward provide a review of the current literature on the nonoperative management of uncomplicated appendicitis in children. They conclude:

-       The majority of recent prospective studies demonstrate early treatment success (0-30 days) of approximately 90% in pediatric patients undergoing nonoperative management.

-       Factors associated with failure of nonoperative management in pediatric appendicitis: longer duration of symptoms (>48 hours), younger age (<5 years), and presence of appendicolith.

-       Nonoperative management has been associated with

o   Lower healthcare costs at 1 year

o   Fewer disability days at 1 year

o   No significantly different rate of complicated appendicitis

-       Most trials to date involve a 24-48 hour initial course of broad spectrum IV antibiotics followed by oral antibiotics for a total of >/= 7 days as nonoperative management. Currently, there is no consensus on antibiotic regimen.

Bottom Line: Given the current evidence, nonoperative management may be a viable treatment option for low risk pediatric patients with uncomplicated appendicitis. The literature is not conclusive, thus we as medical providers in conjunction with our surgical colleagues, should consider numerous factors when discussing treatment options for acute appendicitis with patients and their families.

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